Eurasian (mixed ancestry)

Eurasian
Total population
	Official population numbers are unknown;; United States: 1,623,234 (2010); England and Wales: 341,727 (2011); Netherlands: 369,661 (2015)
Regions with significant populations
	United States; Netherlands; United Kingdom; Hong Kong; Philippines; Singapore; Malaysia; Macau

A Eurasian is a person of mixed Asian and European ancestry. The term was originally coined in 19th-century British India to identify a person born to (usually) a British father and an Indian mother. These mixed offspring were later called Anglo-Indians. In addition to British many were also of mixed Portuguese, Dutch, Indian, or, more rarely, French descent. The term has now been extended to include people whose parentage hails from Europe and all of Asia.^[11]

The term has been used in anthropological literature since the 1960s.^[12]

Specific groups[]

Central Asia[]

Historically, Central Asia has been a "melting pot" of West Eurasia and East Eurasian peoples, leading to high genetic admixture and diversity.^[13] Physical and genetic analyses of ancient remains have concluded that – while the Scythians, including those in the eastern Pazyryk region – possessed predominantly features, found among others, in Europoids, mixed Eurasian phenotypes were also frequently present, suggesting that the Scythians as a whole were descended in part from East Eurasian populations.^[14]

The nomadic Xiongnu were nomadic warriors who invaded China and Central Asia. They were predominant Mongoloid, known from their skeletal remains and artifacts. Analysis of skeletal remains from sites attributed to the Xiongnu provides an identification of dolichocephalic Mongoloid.^[15] Russian and Chinese anthropological and craniofacial studies show that the Xiongnu were physically very heterogeneous, with six different population clusters showing different degrees of Mongoloid and Caucasoid physical traits.^[16] A majority (89%) of the Xiongnu mtDNA sequences can be classified as belonging to Asian haplogroups, and nearly 11% belong to European haplogroups. This finding indicates that contact between European and Asian populations preceded the start of Xiongnu culture, and confirms results reported for two samples from an early 3rd century BC Scytho-Siberian population (Clisson et al. 2002).

Anthropologist SA Pletnev studied a group of burials of Kipchaks in the Volga region and found them to have Caucasoid features with some admixture of Mongoloid traits, with physical characteristics such as flat face and distinctly protruding nose.^[17] They were nomadic people that, together with the Cumans, ruled areas stretching from Kazakhstan, Caucasus, eastern Europe. Like the Kipchaks, the Cumans invaders of Europe were also of mixed anthropological origins. Excavation at Hungary Csengele, were far from genetic homogeneity showing both Mongoloid and European traits. Five of the six skeletons that were complete enough for anthropometric analysis and they appeared Asian rather than European (Horváth 1978, 2001)

The Hunnic invaders of Europe were also of mixed origins. Hungarian archaeologist István Bóna argues that most of Europeans Huns were of Caucasoid and that less than 20–25% were of Mongoloid stock.^[18] According to the Hungarian anhtropologist Pál Lipták (1955) he believed Turanid race was most common among the Hun. He classified Turanid as a Caucasoid type with significant Mongoloid admixture, arising from the mixture of the Andronovo type of Europoid features and the Oriental (Mongoloid).^[19]

LeninEnSuizaMarzo1916--barbaroussovietr00mcbr — Vladimir Lenin was of partly Kalmyk descent.

The Eurasian Avars were group of sixth-century nomadic warriors that came from Northern Central Asia who ruled in what is today Central Europe. Anthropological research has revealed few skeletons with Mongoloid-type features, although there was continuing cultural influence from the Eurasian nomadic steppe. The early Avar anthropological material was said to be mostly Europoid in the seventh century according to Pál Lipták, while grave-goods indicated Middle and Central Asian parallels. Mongoloid and Euro-Mongoloid types compose about one-third of the total population of the Avar graves of the eighth century with the late Avar Period showing more hybridization resulting in higher frequencies of Europo-Mongolids.^[20] Initially, the Avars and their subjects lived separately, except for Slavic and Germanic women who were married to Avar men. Eventually, the Germanic and Slavic peoples were included in the Avaric social order and culture, which itself was Persian-Byzantine in fashion.^[21]

Each year, the Huns [Avars] came to the Slavs, to spend the winter with them; then they took the wives and daughters of the Slavs and slept with them, and among the other mistreatments [already mentioned] the Slavs were also forced to pay levies to the Huns. But the sons of the Huns, who were [then] raised with the wives and daughters of these Wends [Slavs] could not finally endure this oppression anymore and refused obedience to the Huns and began, as already mentioned, a rebellion.
—Chronicle of Fredegar, Book IV, Section 48, written circa 642

The Seljuk Empire which ruled from Central Asia, Middle East to modern Turkey, their descendants are the Iranian Turkmen and Afghan Turkmen and are mixture of Mongoloid/Caucasoid.

Like the Kipchaks, the Cuman invaders of Europe were also of mixed anthropological origins. Excavations in Csengele, Hungary, have revealed normatively East Asian and European traits. Five of the six skeletons that were complete enough for anthropometric analysis appeared Asian rather than European.^[22]

Many Eurasian ethnic groups arose during the Mongol invasion of Europe. Partial Mongol descendants of Central Asians and Circassians, such as the Uzbeks, Kazakhs, and Nogais, also created many Eurasian ethnic groups under the empires they established (for example, the Timurid Empire, Mughal Empire, Kazakh Khanate, and Nogai Horde), which covered vast areas of Russia, the Caucasus, the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia. The term Eurasian was first coined in British India in 1844 by the Marquess of Hastings. The term was originally used to refer to those who are now known as Anglo-Indians, people of mixed British and Indian descent.^[23]

Southeast Asia[]

Xanana Gusmão, first President of East Timor.

European colonization of vast swathes of Southeast Asia led to the burgeoning of Eurasian populations, particularly in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Timor-Leste, Vietnam and most of all in the Philippines. The majority of Eurasians in Southeast Asia formed a separate community from the indigenous peoples and the European colonizers, and served as middlemen between the two. Post-colonial Eurasians can be found in practically every country in Southeast Asia, most especially in the Philippines due to the 377 years of colonization by Spain, 4 years of British settlement and 49 years of American settlement which gives the country the longest unstopping 426 years of continuously European exposure in Southeast Asia. While Burma was colonized by the British for 124 years, the French controlled Indochina for 67 years, the British controlled Malaysia for 120 years and Dutch controlled Indonesia for 149 years after Portugal.

Cambodia[]

In the last official census in French Indochina in 1946, there were 45,000 Europeans in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. One-fifth were Eurasian.^[24]

Jean-François Izzi, a French banker of Italian origin, was the father of the Queen Mother of Cambodia, Norodom Monineath.^[25] The son of Norodom Monineath is the reigning King of Cambodia, Norodom Sihamoni.

Indonesia[]

See also: Indo people and Indos in colonial history

The Eurasian community from Indonesia developed over a period of 400 years, it began with a mostly Portuguese Indonesian ancestry and ended with a dominant Dutch-Indonesian ancestry after the arrival of the Dutch East India Company in Indonesia in 1603 and near continuous Dutch rule until the Japanese occupation of Indonesia in World War II.

Indo is a term used to describe Europeans, Asians, and Eurasian people who were a migrant population that associated themselves with and experienced the colonial culture of the former Dutch East Indies, a Dutch colony in Southeast Asia that became Indonesia after World War II.^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29] It was used to describe people acknowledged to be of mixed Dutch and Indonesian descent, or it was a term used in the Dutch East Indies to apply to Europeans who had partial Asian ancestry.^[29]^[30]^[31]^[32]^[33] The European ancestry of these people was predominantly Dutch, and also Portuguese, British, French, Belgian, German, and others.^[34]

Other terms used were Indos, Dutch Indonesians, Eurasians,^[35] Indo-Europeans, Indo-Dutch,^[29] and Dutch-Indos.^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39]^[40]

Malaysia[]

Myanmar[]

Philippines[]

Singapore[]

Thailand[]

Vietnam[]

See also: Con lai and Women in Vietnam#European rule

In the last official census in French Indochina in 1946, there were 45,000 Europeans in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia - of which one-fifth were Eurasian.^[24] Much of the business conducted with foreign men in Southeast Asia was done by the local women, who served engaged in both sexual and mercantile intercourse with foreign male traders. A Portuguese and Malay speaking Vietnamese woman who lived in Macau for an extensive period of time was the person who interpreted for the first diplomatic meeting between Cochin-China and a Dutch delegation, she served as an interpreter for three decades in the Cochin-China court with an old woman who had been married to three husbands, one Vietnamese and two Portuguese.^[51]^[52]^[53] The cosmopolitan exchange was facilitated by the marriage of Vietnamese women to Portuguese merchants. Those Vietnamese woman were married to Portuguese men and lived in Macao which was how they became fluent in Malay and Portuguese.^[54] Alexander Hamilton said that "The Tonquiners used to be very desirous of having a brood of Europeans in their country, for which reason the greatest nobles thought it no shame or disgrace to marry their daughters to English and Dutch seamen, for the time they were to stay in Tonquin, and often presented their sons-in-law pretty handsomely at their departure, especially if they left their wives with child; but adultery was dangerous to the husband, for they are well versed in the art of poisoning."^[55]

Vietnam saw a surge in its Eurasian population following the entry of the United States as an active combatant in the Vietnam War in 1965. Large numbers of white American soldiers were deployed in South Vietnam to support the country, and intermingling with local Vietnamese women was common. The resulting Eurasian children, known as Amerasians, were products of varying circumstances ranging from genuine long-term relationships and love affairs to prostitution and rape. When the war was going against South Vietnam in the early 1970s, the gradual withdrawal of American troops during the Vietnamization process included many Vietnamese war brides and their Eurasian children. The situation led the United States Congress to enact the American Homecoming Act, granting preferential immigration status specifically to Eurasian children born to servicemen in Vietnam claimed by their fathers. The Eurasian children that remained in Vietnam, around 20,000, were typically from the worst circumstances, fatherless, and often ended up in orphanages as their mothers were incapable or uninterested in raising them. The North Vietnamese victory in 1975 saw greater stigma against Eurasian Vietnamese children, as the new government of reunified Vietnam was hostile to the United States and saw them as symbols of foreign occupation. The poor circumstances of the Amerasian children made them vulnerable to severe social and state-sponsored persecution.

East Asia[]

China[]

Hong Kong[]

In 19th century Hong Kong, Eurasian or "half-caste" children were often stigmatised as symbols of 'moral degradation' and 'racial impurity' by both European and Chinese communities.^[56] According to Chiu:

To the European community, such children were the ‘tangible evidence of moral irregularity’, while to the Chinese community they embodied the shame and ‘evil’ of their marginalised mothers. Stewart has commented that, ‘The word "barbarian" on the lip of a Greek contained but an iota of the contempt which the Chinese entertain for such persons’.^[56]

In the 1890s Ernst Johann Eitel, a German missionary, controversially claimed that most "half-caste" people in Hong Kong were descended exclusively from Europeans having relationships with outcast groups such as the Tanka people. Carl Smith's study in the 1960s on "protected women" (the kept mistresses of foreigners) to an extent supports Eitel's theory. The Tanka were marginalised in Chinese society which consisted of the majority Puntis (Cantonese-speaking people). Custom precluded their intermarriage with the Cantonese and Hakka-speaking populations and they had limited opportunities of settlement on land. Consequently, the Tanka did not experience the same social pressures when dealing with Europeans. Eitel's theory, however, was criticised by Henry J. Lethbridge writing in the 1970s as a "myth" propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community.^[57]^[58]^[59]^[60]

Andrew and Bushnell (2006) wrote extensively on the position of women in the British Empire and the Tanka inhabitants of Hong Kong and their position in the prostitution industry, catering towards foreign sailors. The Tanka did not marry with the Chinese; being descendants of the natives, they were restricted to the waterways. They supplied their women as prostitutes to British sailors and assisted the British in their military actions around Hong Kong.^[61] The Tanka in Hong Kong were considered "outcasts" categorised low class.^[62]

Ordinary Chinese prostitutes were afraid of serving Westerners since they looked strange to them, while the Tanka prostitutes freely mingled with western men.^[63] The Tanka assisted the Europeans with supplies and providing them with prostitutes.^[64]^[65] Low class European men in Hong Kong easily formed relations with the Tanka prostitutes.^[66] The profession of prostitution among the Tanka women led to them being hated by the Chinese both because they had sex with westerners and them being racially Tanka.^[67]

Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew (1845–1917) and Katharine Caroline Bushnell (1856–1946) wrote extensively about the position of women in the British Empire. Published in 1907, Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers, which examined the exploitation of Chinese women in Hong Kong under colonial rule, discussed the Tanka inhabitants of Hong Kong and their position in the prostitution industry, catering towards foreign sailors. The Tanka did not marry with the Chinese, being descendants of the natives, they were restricted to the waterways. They supplied their women as prostitutes to British sailors and assisted the British in their military actions around Hong Kong.^[68] The Tanka in Hong Kong were considered as "outcasts".^[69] Tanka women were ostracized from the Cantonese community, and were nicknamed "salt water girls" (ham shui mui) for their services as prostitutes to foreigners in Hong Kong.^[70]^[71]

Notable examples of Eurasian people from Hong Kong include Nancy Kwan, once a Hollywood sex symbol, born to a Cantonese father and English and Scottish mother, Bruce Lee, the martial artist icon born to a Cantonese father and a Eurasian mother, and Macao-born actress Isabella Leong, born to a Portuguese-English father and a Chinese mother. The Jewish Dutch man Charles Maurice Bosman^[72] was the father of the brothers Sir Robert Hotung and Ho Fook who was the grandfather of Stanley Ho. The number of people who identified as "Mixed with one Chinese parent" according to the 2001 Hong Kong Census was 16,587, which had risen to 24,649 in 2011.^[6]

Macau[]

The early Macanese ethnic group was formed from Portuguese men with Malay, Japanese, Indian and Sinhalese women.^[73]^[74] The Portuguese encouraged Chinese migration to Macau, and most Macanese in Macau were formed from between Portuguese and Chinese. In 1810, the total population of Macau was about 4033, of which 1172 were white men, 1830 were white women, 425 male slaves, and 606 female slaves. In 1830, the population increased to 4480 and the breakdown was 1,202 white men, 2149 white women, 350 male slaves and 779 female slaves. There is reason to speculate that large numbers of white women were involved in some forms of prostitution which would probably explain the abnormality in the ratio between men and women among the white population.^[75] Majority of the early Chinese-Portuguese intermarriages were between Portuguese men and women of Tanka origin, who were considered the lowest class of people in China and had relations with Portuguese settlers and sailors, or low class Chinese women.^[76]^[77] Western men like the Portuguese were refused by high class Chinese women, who did not marry foreigners.^[78] while a minority were Cantonese men and Portuguese women. Macanese men and women also married with the Portuguese and Chinese, as a result some Macanese became indistinguishable from the Chinese or Portuguese population. Because the majority of the population who migrated to Macau were Cantonese, Macau became a culturally Cantonese-speaking society, other ethnic groups became fluent in Cantonese. Most Macanese had paternal Portuguese heritage until 1974.^[76] It was in 1980s that Macanese and Portuguese women began to marry men who defined themselves ethnically as Chinese,^[79] which resulted in many Macanese with Cantonese paternal ancestry. Many Chinese became Macanese simply by converting to Catholicism, and had no ancestry from the Portuguese, having assimilated into the Macanese people since they were rejected by non Christian Chinese.^[80]

After the handover of Macau to China in 1999 many Macanese migrated to other countries. Of the Portuguese and Macanese women who stayed in Macau married with local Cantonese men, resulting in more Macanese with Cantonese paternal heritage. There are between 25,000–46,000 Macanese; 5,000–8,000 of whom live in Macau, while most live in Latin America (most particularly Brazil), America, and Portugal. Unlike the Macanese of Macau who are strictly of Chinese and Portuguese heritage, many Macanese living abroad are not entirely of Portuguese and Chinese ancestry; many Macanese men and women intermarried with the local population of America and Latin America etc. and have only partial Macanese heritage.

Japan[]

Amerasian Japanese in Okinawa and Japan are mostly the result of European American soldiers and Japanese women. Including a large number of war brides. Many Latin Americans in Japan (known in their own cultures as dekasegi) are mixed, including Brazilians of Portuguese, Italian, German, Spaniard, Polish and Ukrainian descent. In Mexico and Argentina, for example, those mixed between nikkei and non-nikkei are called mestizos de japonés, while in Brazil both mestiço de japonês and ainoko, ainoco or even hafu are common terms.

South Korea[]

U.S. military personnel married 6423 Korean women as war brides during and immediately after the Korean War. The average number of Korean women marrying US military personnel each year was about 1500 per year in the 1960s and 2300 per year in the 1970s.^[81]

Taiwan[]

During the Siege of Fort Zeelandia in which Chinese Ming loyalist forces commanded by Koxinga besieged and defeated the Dutch East India Company and conquered Taiwan, the Chinese took Dutch women and children prisoner. Koxinga took Hambroek's teenage daughter as a concubine,^[82]^[83]^[84] and Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their wives. In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese.^[85]

Some Dutch physical looks like auburn and red hair among people in regions of south Taiwan are a consequence of this episode of Dutch women becoming concubines to the Chinese commanders.^[86]

South Asia[]

Bangladesh[]

There are about 97,000 Anglo Indians in Bangladesh. 55% of them are Christians.^[87]

Burma (Myanmar)[]

Main article: Anglo-Burmese people

The Anglo-Burmese emerged as a distinct community through mixed relations (sometimes permanent, sometimes temporary) between the British and other European settlers and the indigenous peoples of Burma from 1826 until 1948 when Myanmar gained its independence from the United Kingdom.

Collectively, in the Burmese language, Eurasians are specifically known as bo kabya; the term kabya refers to persons of mixed ancestry or dual ethnicity.

India[]

Main article: Anglo-Indian

The first use of the term 'Anglo-Indian' was to describe all British people living in India, regardless of whether they had Indian ancestors or not. This usage changed to describe people who were of the very specific lineage descending from the British on the male side and women from the Indian side.^[88] People of mixed British and Indian descent were previously referred to as simply 'Eurasians'.^[11]

During the British East India Company's rule in India in the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century, it was initially fairly common for British officers and soldiers to take local Indian wives and have Eurasian children. Many European women were barred from being with native men. Even so, there were still many Indian sepoy men who took European wives. Interracial marriages between European men and Indian women were very common during early colonial times. The scholar Michael Fisher estimates that one in three European men during the company rule had Indian wives. The Europeans (mostly Portuguese, Dutch, French, German, Irish, Scottish, and English) were stationed in India in their youth, and looked for relationships with local women.^[89]^[90] The most famous of such interracial liaisons was between the Hyderabadi noblewoman Khair-un-Nissa and the Scottish resident James Achilles Kirkpatrick. In addition to intermarriage, inter-ethnic prostitution in India existed. Generally, Muslim women did not marry European men because the men were not of the Islamic faith. By the mid-nineteenth century, there were around 40,000 British soldiers but fewer than 2000 British officials present in India.^[91] As British women began arriving to India in large numbers around the early-to-mid-nineteenth century, mostly as family members of British officers and soldiers, intermarriage with Indians became less frequent among the British in India. After the events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, such intermarriage was considered undesirable by both cultures.^[92] The colonial government passed several anti-miscegenation laws.^[93]^[94] As a result, Eurasians became more marginal to both the British and Indian populations in India.

Over generations, Anglo-Indians intermarried with other Anglo-Indians to form a community that developed a culture of its own. They created distinctive Anglo-Indian, dress, speech and religion. They established a school system focused on English language and culture, and formed social clubs and associations to run functions, such as regular dances, at holidays such as Christmas and Easter.^[88] Over time, the British colonial government recruited Anglo-Indians into the Customs and Excise, Post and Telegraphs, Forestry Department, the Railways and teaching professions, but they were employed in many other fields as well. A number of factors fostered a strong sense of community among Anglo-Indians. Their English-language school system, their Anglocentric culture, and their Christian beliefs helped bind them together.^[95] Today, an estimated 300,000-1 million Anglo-Indians live in India.^[96]

Sri Lanka[]

Europe[]

Immigration to Europe has led to the rise of Eurasian communities in Europe, most prominently in the Netherlands, Spain, and United Kingdom, where significant numbers of Indonesian, Filipino, and Indo-Pakistani Eurasians live. The Turkish Empire spanned large parts of Europe and gave rise to populations with mixed ancestry in their former territories.

Netherlands[]

See also: Indo people, Indos in colonial history, and Tong Tong Fair

Dutch Eurasians of part Indonesian descent, also called Indos or Indo-Europeans, have largely assimilated in the Netherlands^[99] arriving in the Netherlands following the end of World War II until 1965, their diaspora a result of Indonesia gaining its independence from Dutch colonial rule. Statistics show high inter marriage rates with native Dutch (50–80%). With over 500,000 persons, they are the largest ethnic minority in the Netherlands. So-called Indo rockers such as the Tielman Brothers introduced their blend of rock and roll music to Dutch audiences, whereas others gained fame as singers and TV presenters, such as Rob de Nijs and Sandra Reemer. There are also famous Indo soccer players such as Giovanni van Bronckhorst and Robin van Persie. Well-known politicians, such as Christian democrat Hans van den Broek and politician Geert Wilders, are also of Indo descent.

Spain[]

See also: Spanish people of Filipino ancestry

Spanish Eurasians, called Mestizos, most of whom are of partial Filipino ancestry, make up a small but important minority in Spain. Numbering about 115,000, they consist of early migrants to Spain after the loss of the Philippines to the United States in 1898.

Well known Spanish Eurasians include actress and socialite Isabel Preysler and her son Enrique Iglesias, as well as former Prime Minister Marcelo Azcarraga Palmero.

United Kingdom[]

See also: Anglo-Indian, Anglo-Burmese people, and Mixed (United Kingdom ethnicity category)

Interracial marriage was fairly common in Britain since the seventeenth century, when the British East India Company began bringing over thousands of Indian scholars, lascars and workers (mostly Bengali and/or Muslim) to Britain. Most married and cohabited with local white British women and girls, due to the absence of Indian women in Britain at the time. This later became an issue, as a magistrate of the London Tower Hamlets area in 1817 expressed disgust at how the local British women and girls in the area were marrying and cohabiting with foreign South Asian lascars. Nevertheless, there were no legal restrictions against 'mixed' marriages in Britain, unlike the restrictions in India.^[100]^[101]^[102] This led to "mixed race" Eurasian (Anglo-Indian) children in Britain, which challenged the British elite efforts to "define them using simple dichotomies of British versus Indian, ruler versus ruled." By the mid-nineteenth century, there were more than 40,000 Indian seamen, diplomats, scholars, soldiers, officials, tourists, businessmen and students arriving in Britain,^[89] and by the time World War I began, there were 51,616 Indian lascar seamen residing in Britain.^[103] In addition, the British officers and soldiers who had Indian wives and Eurasian children in British India often brought them to Britain in the nineteenth century.^[104]

Following World War I, there were more women than men in Britain,^[105] and there were increasing numbers of seamen arriving from abroad, mostly from the Indian subcontinent, in addition to smaller numbers from Yemen, Malaysia and China. This led to increased intermarriage and cohabitation with local white females. Some residents grew concerned about miscegenation and there were several race riots at the time.^[106] In the 1920s to 1940s, several writers raised concerns about an increasing 'mixed-breed' population, born mainly from Muslim Asian (mostly South Asian in addition to Arab and Malaysian) fathers and local white mothers, occasionally out of wedlock. They denounced white girls who mixed with Muslim Asian men as 'shameless' and called for a ban on the breeding of 'half-caste' children. Such attempts at imposing anti-miscegenation laws were unsuccessful.^[107] As South Asian women began arriving in Britain in large numbers from the 1970s, mostly as family members, intermarriage rates have decreased in the British Asian community, although the size of the community has increased. As of 2006, there are 246,400 'British Mixed-Race' people of European and South Asian descent. There is also a small Eurasian community in Liverpool. The first Chinese settlers were mainly Cantonese from south China some were also from Shanghai. The figures of Chinese for 1921 are 2157 men and 262 women. Many Chinese men married British women while others remained single, possibly supporting a wife and family back home in China. During World War II (1939–1945) another wave of Chinese seamen from Shanghai and of Cantonese origin married British women. Records show that about some 300 of these men had married British women and supported families.^[108]

North America[]

Canada[]

Main article: Asian Canadians

Cuba[]

Costa Rica[]

Mexico[]

United States[]

Hawaii[]

Oceania[]

Australia[]

Most of the early Australian Chinese population consisted of Cantonese-speaking migrants from Guangzhou and Taishan as well as some Hokkien-speaking from Fujian. They migrated to Australia during the gold rush period of the 1850s. Marriage records show that between the 1850s and the start of the twentieth century, there were about 2000 legal marriages between white women and migrant Chinese men in Australia's eastern colonies, probably with similar numbers involved in de facto relationships of various kinds.^[158]

A Chinese man Sun San Lung and his son by his white European Australian wife Lizzie in Castlemaine returned to China in 1887 for a trip after marrying a second white wife after Lizzie died, but they were blocked from coming back to Melbourne, Australia. Chinese men were found living with 73 opium addicted Australian white women when Quong Tart surveyed the goldfields for opium addicts, and a lot of homeless women abused by husbands and prostitutes ran away and married Chinese men in Sydney after taking refuge in Chinese opium dens in gambling houses, Reverend Francis Hopkins said that 'A Chinaman's Anglo-Saxon wife is almost his God, a European's is his slave. This is the reason why so many girls transfer their affections to the almond-eyed Celestials.' when giving the reason why these women married Chinese men.^[159] After the gold mining ended some Chinese remained in Australia and started families, one youthful Englishwoman married a Chinese in 1870 in Bendigo and the Golden Dragon Museum is run by his great-grandson Russell Jack.^[160]

The Australian sniper Billy Sing was the son of a Chinese father and an English mother.^[161]^[162]^[163]^[164] His parents were John Sing (c. 1842–1921), a drover from Shanghai, China, and Mary Ann Sing (née Pugh; c. 1857–unknown), a nurse from Kingswinford, Staffordshire, England.^[165]^[166]

The rate of intermarriage declined as stories of the viciousness of Chinese men towards white women spread, mixed with increasing opposition to intermarriage. Rallies against Chinese men taking white women as wives became widespread as many white Australian men saw the intermarriage and cohabitation of Chinese men with white women as a threat to the white race. In late 1878, there were 181 marriages between women of European descent and Chinese men as well as 171 such couples cohabiting without matrimony, resulting in the birth of 586 children of Sino-European descent.^[167] Such a rate of intermarriage between Chinese Australians and white Australians was to continue until the 1930s.

South America[]

Argentina[]

Main article: Asian Argentines

Today, there are an estimated of 180,000 Asian-Argentines, with 120,000 of Chinese descent,^[168] 32,000 of Japanese descent, 25,000 of Korean descent.^[169]

Brazil[]

Main article: Asian Brazilians

Common estimates generally include about 25–35% of Japanese Brazilians as multiracial, being generally over 50–60% among the yonsei, or fourth-generation outside Japan. In Brazil, home to the largest Japanese community overseas, miscegenation is celebrated, and it promoted racial integration and mixing over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, nevertheless as a way of dealing with and assimilating its non-white population, submitted to white elites, with no dangers of uprisings that would put its status quo in risk. While culture shock was strong for the first and second generations of Japanese Brazilians, and the living conditions in the fazendas (plantation farms) after the slavery crisis were sometimes worse than in Asia, Brazil stimulated immigration as means of substitution for the lost workforce, and any qualms about the non-whiteness of the Japanese were quickly forgotten. After Japan became one of the world's most developed and rich nations, the Japanese in Brazil and their culture as well gained an image of progress, instead of the old bad perception of a people which would not be assimilated or integrated as its culture and race were deemed as diametrically opposed to the Brazilian ones.

In the censuses, self-reported amarelos (literally "yellows" i.e. Mongolics, people racially Asian) include about 2,100,000 people, or around 1% of the Brazilian population. A greater number of persons may have Japanese and less commonly Chinese and Korean ancestry, but identify as white (Brazilian society has no one drop rule), pardo (i.e. brown-skinned multiracial or assimilated Amerindian, pardo stands for a Brazilian darker than white and lighter than black, but not necessarily implying a white-black admixture) or Afro-Brazilian. When it comes to religion, self-reported Asian Brazilians are only less Irreligious than whites, and a little more Catholic than Amerindians. They are the least group when it comes to traditional churches of Christianity, and also the least group in percent of Protestants, and Evangelicals or Pentecostals as well. Asian Brazilians have the highest income per capita according to the 2010 census.

Peru[]

See also: Chinese Peruvians and Japanese Peruvians

About 100,000 Cantonese coolies (almost all males) in 1849 to 1874 migrated to Peru and intermarried with Peruvian women of mestizo, European, Ameridian, European/mestizo, African and mulatto origin. Many Peruvian Chinese and Peruvian Japanese today are of Spanish, Italian, African and Ameridian. Estimates for Chinese-Peruvian is about 1.3–1.6 millions. Asian Peruvians are estimated to be 3% of the population, but one source places the number of citizens with some Chinese ancestry at 4.2 million, which equates to 15% of the country's total population. In Peru non-Chinese women married the mostly male Chinese coolies.^[170]

References[]

^ ^a ^b [1]
^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-02-24. http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-england-and-wales/rft-table-ks201ew.xls. Retrieved 2012-12-25.
^ "CBS StatLine - Bevolking; generatie, geslacht, leeftijd en herkomstgroepering, 1 januari". http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37325&D1=0&D2=a&D3=0&D4=0&D5=a&D6=l&HDR=G2,G3&STB=G1,G5,T,G4&VW=T. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
^ ^a ^b "American FactFinder". Factfinder2.census.gov. Archived from the original on 2013-09-11. https://web.archive.org/web/20130911234518/http://factfinder2.census.gov/. Retrieved 2014-01-02. Defining Eurasians as those who were marked as both "white" and "Asian", in the 2010 census there were 1,623,234 Eurasians in the United States.
^ "Demografie van de Indische Nederlanders, 1930–2001" (PDF). http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/482F9147-4512-4E9F-B8EF-BDD3E50607E9/0/2003k1b15p058art.pdf. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
^ ^a ^b Hong Kong Government. "Ethnic Minorities by Ethnicity and Age Group, 2001, 2006 and 2011 (F401)". http://www.census2011.gov.hk/en/main-table/F401.html. Retrieved 5 February 2014. 24,649 people identified as "Mixed with one Chinese parent", according to the 2011 Hong Kong Census.
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^ "Culture & identity take centre stage at Eurasian dialogue". Channel NewsAsia (XinMSN). 23 Feb 2013. http://news.xin.msn.com/en/singapore/article.aspx?cp-documentid=251933730. Retrieved 24 Dec 2013. "There are close to 18,000 Eurasians in Singapore".
^ Jarnagin, Laura (2012). Portuguese and Luso-Asian Legacies in Southeast Asia, 1511–2011: Culture and identity in the Luso-Asian world, tenacities & plasticities. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 268. "Today, there are over twenty-nine thousand Eurasians living in Malaysia, the vast majority of whom are of Portuguese descent."
^ Yee, H. (12 September 2001). "Macau in Transition: From Colony to Autonomous Region". Springer. https://books.google.com/books?id=9yuGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123&lpg=PA123&dq=eurasians+in+MAcau&source=bl&ots=GvR8Msjk3X&sig=EEdmylsGzA5TXPbc8xgIJim4hyA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUnIfZkdzNAhUGp5QKHeYmBXgQ6AEIXjAM#v=onepage&q=eurasians+in+MAcau&f=false. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
^ ^a ^b "Eurasian". Dictionary.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Eurasian. Retrieved 2009-01-13.
^ Current Anthropology, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Feb., 1961), p. 64.
^ González-Ruiz, Mercedes (2012). "Tracing the Origin of the East-West Population Admixture in the Altai Region (Central Asia)". PLOS ONE 7 (11). DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0048904. PMID 23152818. Retrieved on 23 November 2013.
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^ Bóna, István: "A Nagyrév-kultúra településeiről", 1991, p.30. In: Hyun Jin Kim, "The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe Archived August 21, 2016, at the Wayback Machine", Cambridge University Press, p.187
^ Lipták, Pál. Recherches anthropologiques sur les ossements avares des environs d'Üllö Archived April 8, 2014, at archive.today (1955) – In: Acta archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, vol. 6 (1955), pp. 231–314
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^ Meiqi Lee (2004). Being Eurasian: Memories Across Racial Divides (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 2. ISBN 962-209-671-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=mVGd71y1Y-0C&lpg=PP1&dq=eurasian%20people&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2011-11-02.
^ ^a ^b Thomas A. Bass. Vietnamerica: The War Comes Home. New York: Soho Press, 1996, p. 86
^ The Royal House of Cambodia, Julio A. Jeldres, Monument Books, 2003, p. 69
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^ ^a ^b ^c van Imhoff, E. (2004). "A demographic history of the Indo-Dutch population, 1930–2001". Journal of Population Research 21 (1): 47–49. DOI:10.1007/bf03032210. Retrieved on 3 November 2013.
^ Lai, Selena (2002). Understanding Indonesia in the 21st Century. Stanford University Institute for International Studies. p. 12.
^ J. Errington, Linguistics in a Colonial World: A Story of Language, 2008, Wiley-Blackwell, p. 138
^ The Colonial Review. Department of Education in Tropical Areas, University of London, Institute of Education. 1941. p. 72.
^ Bosma, U.; Raben, R. (2008). Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 1500–1920. University of Michigan, NUS Press. pp. 21,37,220. ISBN 9971-69-373-9. Indos–people of Dutch descent who stayed in the new republic Indonesia after it gained independence, or who emigrated to Indonesia after 1949–are called Dutch-Indonesians. Although the majority of the Indos are found in the lowest strata of European society, they do not represent a solid social or economic group."
^ (1968) "The Eurasians of Indonesia: A Problem and Challenge in Colonial History". Journal of Southeast Asian History 9: 191. DOI:10.1017/s021778110000466x.
^ (2012) "East of the Cape in 1832: The Old Indies World, Empire Families and "Colonial Women" in Nineteenth-century Java". Itinerario 36: 22–48. DOI:10.1017/s0165115312000356.
^ Greenbaum-Kasson, E. (2011). "The long way home". The Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimesmagazine.com/2011/02/the-long-way-home.html.
^ Betts, R. (2004). Decolonization. Psychology Press. p. 81.
^ Yanowa, D. (2012). "People out of place: allochthony and autochthony in the Netherlands' identity discourse—metaphors and categories in action". Journal of International Relations and Development 16: 227–261. DOI:10.1057/jird.2012.13. Retrieved on 5 November 2013.
^ Pattynama, P. (2012). "Cultural memory and Indo-Dutch identity formations": 175–192.
^ Asrianti, Tifa (10 January 2010). "Dutch Indonesians' search for home". The Jakarta Post. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/01/10/dutch-indonesians039-search-home.html. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
^ Laura Jarnagin (2012). Portuguese and Luso-Asian Legacies in Southeast Asia, 1511–2011: Culture and identity in the Luso-Asian world, tenacities & plasticities. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 268.
^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2010-02-14. https://web.archive.org/web/20100214223039/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf. Retrieved 2009-12-18.
^ Historical Conservation Society. The Society.. 1963. p. 191. https://books.google.com/books?id=8yc0AAAAIAAJ&q=pesos+Chinese+2,000+spanish+mestizo&dq=pesos+Chinese+2,000+spanish+mestizo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-zcPBjN7RAhUr4oMKHYyIAd0Q6AEITjAF.
^ Sinibaldo De Mas (1963). Informe secreto de Sinibaldo de Más. Historical Conservation Society. p. 191. https://books.google.com/books?id=22gKAQAAIAAJ&q=pesos+Chinese+2,000+spanish+mestizo&dq=pesos+marry+spanish+women+mestizo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-zcPBjN7RAhUr4oMKHYyIAd0Q6AEIYjAI.
^ Shubert S. C. Liao (1964). Chinese participation in Philippine culture and economy. Bookman. p. 30. https://books.google.com/books?id=vrDkAAAAIAAJ&q=pesos+Chinese+2,000+spanish+mestizo&dq=pesos+Chinese+2,000+spanish+mestizo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX_5C0jd7RAhXr7YMKHbOwCWIQ6AEIHzAB.
^ Emma Helen Blair (1915). The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898: Relating to China and the Chinese. A.H. Clark Company. pp. 85–87. https://books.google.com/books?id=FrJEAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA86&dq=pesos+Chinese+2,000+spanish+mestizo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-zcPBjN7RAhUr4oMKHYyIAd0Q6AEILTAA#v=onepage&q=pesos%20Chinese%202%2C000%20spanish%20mestizo&f=false.
^ L. Hunt, Chester, "Sociology in the Philippine setting: A modular approach", p. 118, Phoenix Pub. House, 1954
^ Frederic H. Sawyer, "The Inhabitants of the Philippines, p. 125, New York, 1900
^ "Eurasian Invasion". Time. 2001-04-23. http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,106427,00.html. Retrieved 2012-03-25.
^ The sum of our parts: mixed-heritage Asian Americans - Teresa Williams-León, Cynthia L. Nakashima - Google Books. Books.google.co.uk. 2001. ISBN 9781566398473. https://books.google.com/?id=LfNhnmWhPscC&pg=PA237&lpg=PA237&dq=Luk+khrueng+bangkok+post#v=onepage&q=Luk%20khrueng%20bangkok%20post&f=false. Retrieved 2012-03-28.
^ Reid, Anthony (1990). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680: The lands below the winds. Volume 1 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680 (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0-300-04750-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=lqyJViWXkVsC&pg=PA165&dq=vietnamese+woman+portuguese+macau+cochin+china+spoke&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1yyEVPj0Fa_gsASstoCQCQ&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
^ MacLeod, Murdo J.; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida, eds (1998). European Intruders and Changes in Behaviour and Customs in Africa, America, and Asia Before 1800. Volume 30 of An Expanding World, the European Impact on World History, 1450–1800, Vol 30 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Ashgate. p. 636. ISBN 0-86078-522-X. https://books.google.com/books?id=-CmAAAAAMAAJ&q=636+ANTHONY+REID+excellent+Portuguese+and+Malay+and+had+long+resided+in+Macao.+She,+along+with+another+elderly+woman+who+had+had+two+Portuguese+husbands+as+well+as+one+Vietnamese,+had+been+the+principal+translator+for+the+Cochin-China+court+for+30+years+(Wonderaer,+1602:+22,+38).+Similarly+...+She+was+'a+prodigy+of+learning',+spoke+Chinese,+Thai,+Chuliah,+Bengali+and+Acehnese+and+knew+the+politics+of+all+the+Sumatran+coastal+states+intimately+(Anderson,+1826:+44-5).&dq=636+ANTHONY+REID+excellent+Portuguese+and+Malay+and+had+long+resided+in+Macao.+She,+along+with+another+elderly+woman+who+had+had+two+Portuguese+husbands+as+well+as+one+Vietnamese,+had+been+the+principal+translator+for+the+Cochin-China+court+for+30+years+(Wonderaer,+1602:+22,+38).+Similarly+...+She+was+'a+prodigy+of+learning',+spoke+Chinese,+Thai,+Chuliah,+Bengali+and+Acehnese+and+knew+the+politics+of+all+the+Sumatran+coastal+states+intimately+(Anderson,+1826:+44-5).&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wSyEVMbRG_WKsQSK5IKgCw&ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
^ Hughes, Sarah S.; Hughes, Brady, eds (1995). Women in World History: Readings from prehistory to 1500. Volume 1 of Sources and studies in world history (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. p. 219. ISBN 1-56324-311-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=05WyAAAAIAAJ&q=Thus+the+first+Dutch+mission+to+Cochin-China+found+that+the+king+dealt+with+them+through+a+Vietnamese+woman+who+spoke+excellent+Portuguese+and+Malay+and+had+long+resided+in+Macao.+She,+along++with+another+elderly+woman+who+had+had+two+Portuguese+husbands+as+well+as+one+Vietnamese,+had+been+the+principal+translator+for+the+Cochin-China+court+for+thirty+years.&dq=Thus+the+first+Dutch+mission+to+Cochin-China+found+that+the+king+dealt+with+them+through+a+Vietnamese+woman+who+spoke+excellent+Portuguese+and+Malay+and+had+long+resided+in+Macao.+She,+along++with+another+elderly+woman+who+had+had+two+Portuguese+husbands+as+well+as+one+Vietnamese,+had+been+the+principal+translator+for+the+Cochin-China+court+for+thirty+years.&hl=en&sa=X&ei=gSyEVML-PKPGsQTu5oL4DA&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
^ Tingley, Nancy (2009). Asia Society. Museum. ed. Arts of Ancient Viet Nam: From River Plain to Open Sea. Andreas Reinecke, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (illustrated ed.). Asia Society. p. 249. ISBN 0-300-14696-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=G6M0AQAAIAAJ&q=Portuguese+traders+married+Vietnamese+women,+which+helped+consolidate+cross-cultural+exchanges.+...+They+spoke+excellent+Portuguese+and+Malay+because+they+had+spent+a+large+part+of+their+lives+in+Macao+as+wives+of+Portuguese+men.&dq=Portuguese+traders+married+Vietnamese+women,+which+helped+consolidate+cross-cultural+exchanges.+...+They+spoke+excellent+Portuguese+and+Malay+because+they+had+spent+a+large+part+of+their+lives+in+Macao+as+wives+of+Portuguese+men.&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cSuEVKiWKZDbsATnzIGgCw&ved=0CBYQ6AEwAA. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
^ Hamilton, Alexander (1997). Smithies, Michael. ed. Alexander Hamilton: A Scottish Sea Captain in Southeast Asia, 1689–1723 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Silkworm Books. p. 205. ISBN 9747100452. https://books.google.com/books?id=74FuAAAAMAAJ&q=thought+it+no+Shame+or+Disgrace+to+marry+their+daughters+to+English+and+Dutch+Seamen,+for+the+they+were+to+stay+in+,+and+often+presented+their+Son+in+Law+pretty+handsomely&dq=thought+it+no+Shame+or+Disgrace+to+marry+their+daughters+to+English+and+Dutch+Seamen,+for+the+they+were+to+stay+in+,+and+often+presented+their+Son+in+Law+pretty+handsomely&hl=en&sa=X&ei=fVyNVJnzDYK1ggSPtoOACw&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
^ ^a ^b Patricia Pok‐kwan Chiu (November 2008). "‘A position of usefulness’: gendering history of girls’ education in colonial Hong Kong (1850s–1890s)". History of Education: Journal of the History of Education Society 37 (6).
^ Meiqi Lee (2004). Being Eurasian: Memories Across Racial Divides (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 262. ISBN 962-209-671-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=mVGd71y1Y-0C&pg=PA262&dq=eitel+half+caste&hl=en&ei=cKqxTv2HM6fj0QHnmtzeAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=eitel%20half%20caste&f=false. Retrieved 2011-11-02. "EJ Eitel, in the late 1890s, claims that the 'half-caste population in Hong Kong ' were from the earliest days of the settlement almost exclusively the offspring of liaisons between European men and women of outcaste ethnic groups such as Tanka (Europe in, 169). Lethbridge refutes the theory saying it was based on a 'myth' propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community. Carl Smith's study in the late 1960s on the protected women seems, to some degree, support Eitel's theory. Smith says that the Tankas experienced certain restrictions within the traditional Chinese social structure. Custom precluded their intermarriage with the Cantonese and Hakka-speaking populations. The Tanka women did not have bound feet. Their opportunities for settlement on shore were limited. They were hence not as closely tied to Confucian ethics as other Chinese ethnic groups. Being a group marginal to the traditional Chinese society of the Puntis (Cantonese), they did not have the same social pressure in dealing with Europeans (CT Smith, Chung Chi Bulletin, 27). 'Living under the protection of a foreigner,' says Smith, 'could be a ladder to financial security, if not respectability, for some of the Tanka boat girls' (13 )."
^ Maria Jaschok, Suzanne Miers (1994). Maria Jaschok, Suzanne Miers. ed. Women and Chinese patriarchy: submission, servitude, and escape (illustrated ed.). Zed Books. p. 223. ISBN 1-85649-126-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=f5o_t7VxHYAC&pg=PA223&dq=eitel+half+caste&hl=en&ei=N7OxTsPpMKjZ0QHu_KXVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=eitel%20half%20caste&f=false. Retrieved 2011-11-01. "He states that they had a near- monopoly of the trade in girls and women, and that: The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day, almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka people. But, like the Tan-ka people themselves, they are happily under the influence of a process of continuous re-absorption in the mass of Chinese residents of the Colony (1895 p. 169)"
^ Helen F. Siu (2011). Helen F. Siu. ed. Merchants' Daughters: Women, Commerce, and Regional Culture in South. Hong Kong University Press. p. 305. ISBN 988-8083-48-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=gM9cMIxjoVcC&pg=PA305&dq=eitel+half+caste&hl=en&ei=N7OxTsPpMKjZ0QHu_KXVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=eitel%20half%20caste&f=false. Retrieved 2011-11-02. ""The half-caste population of Hongkong were . . . almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka women." EJ Eitel, Europe in, the History of Hongkong from the Beginning to the Year 1882 (Taipei: Chen-Wen Publishing Co., originally published in Hong Kong by Kelly and Walsh. 1895, 1968), 169."
^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. https://books.google.com/books?ei=VbqxTpHrAarg0QGggaGoAQ&ct=result&id=hm4JAQAAIAAJ&dq=The+half-caste+population+in+Hong+Kong+were%2C+from+the+earliest+days+of+the+settlement+of+the+Colony+and+down+to+the+present+day+%5B1895%5D%2C+almost+exclusively+the+off-spring+of+these+Tan-ka&q=off+spring. Retrieved 2011-11-01. "The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day [1895], almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people"
^ Andrew, Elizabeth Wheeler; Bushnell, Katharine Caroline (2006). Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers. Echo Library. p. 11. ISBN 1-4068-0431-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=vv_qNljtPtUC&pg=PA11&dq=tanka+tribes+aboriginal&hl=en&ei=85E1TrTOEIvpgAfPuZXvDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
^ John Mark Carroll (2007). A concise history of Hong Kong (illustrated ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 36. ISBN 0-7425-3422-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=D37ijXG-FykC&pg=PA36&dq=Most+of+the+Chinese+who+came+to+Hong+Kong+in+the+early+years+were+from+the+lower+classes,+such+as+laborers,+artisans,+Tanka+outcasts,+prostitutes,+wanderers,+and+smugglers.+That+these+people+violated+orders+from+authorities+in+Canton&hl=en&ei=q2awToSVG8Xa0QG51M3RAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Most%20of%20the%20Chinese%20who%20came%20to%20Hong%20Kong%20in%20the%20early%20years%20were%20from%20the%20lower%20classes%2C%20such%20as%20laborers%2C%20artisans%2C%20Tanka%20outcasts%2C%20prostitutes%2C%20wanderers%2C%20and%20smugglers.%20That%20these%20people%20violated%20orders%20from%20authorities%20in%20Canton&f=false. "Most of the Chinese who came to Hong Kong in the early years were from the lower classes, such as labourers, artisans, Tanka outcasts, prostitutes, wanderers, and smugglers. That these people violated orders from authorities in Canton"
^ Maria Jaschok; Suzanne Miers (1994). Women and Chinese patriarchy: submission, servitude, and escape (illustrated ed.). Zed Books. p. 237. ISBN 1-85649-126-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=f5o_t7VxHYAC&pg=PA237&dq=tanka+prostitutes&hl=en&ei=qkKwTozYNuP50gGYoa3gAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=tanka%20prostitutes&f=false. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "I am indebted to Dr Maria Jaschok for drawing my attention to Sun Guoqun's work on Chinese prostitution and for a reference to Tanka prostitutes who served Western clients. In this they were unlike typical prostitutes who were so unaccustomed to the appearance of western men that 'they were all afraid of them'."
^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. https://books.google.com/books?ei=oFWwTpOfEoHg0QGBtYzjAQ&ct=result&id=hm4JAQAAIAAJ&dq=but+another+source+of+supply+was+the+daughters+of+the+tanka%2C+the+boat+population+of+kwangtung&q=tanka+daughters. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "but another source of supply was the daughters of the tanka, the boat population of kwangtung"
^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. https://books.google.com/books?id=hm4JAQAAIAAJ&q=The+Tanka,+it+seems,+not+only+supplied+foreign+shipping+with+provisions+but+foreigners+with+mistresses.+They+also+supplied+brothels+with+some+of+their+inmates.+As+a+socially+disadvantaged+group,+they+found+prostitution+a+convenient&dq=The+Tanka,+it+seems,+not+only+supplied+foreign+shipping+with+provisions+but+foreigners+with+mistresses.+They+also+supplied+brothels+with+some+of+their+inmates.+As+a+socially+disadvantaged+group,+they+found+prostitution+a+convenient&hl=en&ei=00-wTvapAsX0-gaG6eW2Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "The Tanka, it seems, not only supplied foreign shipping with provisions but foreigners with mistresses. They also supplied brothels with some of their inmates. As a socially disadvantaged group, they found prostitution a convenient"
^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 210. https://books.google.com/books?ei=_VKwTtylOcT50gGg9-mjAQ&ct=result&id=hm4JAQAAIAAJ&dq=In+the+early+days%2C+such+women+were+found+usually+among+the+Tanka+boat+population+%2C+a+pariah+group+that+infested+the+Pearl+River+delta+region.+A+few+of+these+women+achieved+the+status+of+%27protected%27+woman+%28a+kept+mistress%29+and+were&q=women+tanka+pariah. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "In the early days, such women were found usually among the Tanka boat population, a pariah group that infested the Pearl River delta region. A few of these women achieved the status of 'protected' woman (a kept mistress) and were"
^ Fanny M. Cheung (1997). Fanny M. Cheung. ed. EnGendering Hong Kong society: a gender perspective of women's status (illustrated ed.). Chinese University Press. p. 348. ISBN 962-201-736-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=E45DHTYdTmAC&pg=PA348&dq=twentieth+century,+in+women+doubly+marginalized:+as+members+of+a+despised+ethnic+group+of+Tanka+Boat+people,+and+as+prostitutes+engaged+in+%22contemptible%22+sexual+intercourse+with+Western+men.+In+the+empirical+work+done+by+CT+Smith+(1994)&hl=en&ei=iV-wTrqQMsHr0gHY5Py2AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=twentieth%20century%2C%20in%20women%20doubly%20marginalized%3A%20as%20members%20of%20a%20despised%20ethnic%20group%20of%20Tanka%20Boat%20people%2C%20and%20as%20prostitutes%20engaged%20in%20%22contemptible%22%20sexual%20intercourse%20with%20Western%20men.%20In%20the%20empirical%20work%20done%20by%20CT%20Smith%20(1994)&f=false. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "twentieth century, in women doubly marginalised: as members of a despised ethnic group of Tanka Boat people, and as prostitutes engaged in "contemptible" sexual intercourse with Western men. In the empirical work done by CT Smith (1994"
^ Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew, Katharine Caroline Bushnell (1907). Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers. Echo Library. p. 11. ISBN 1-4068-0431-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=vv_qNljtPtUC&pg=PA11.
^ John Mark Carroll (2007). A concise history of Hong Kong. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 36. ISBN 0-7425-3422-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=D37ijXG-FykC&pg=PA36. "Most of the Chinese who came to Hong Kong in the early years were from the lower classes, such as laborers, artisans, Tanka outcasts, prostitutes, wanderers, and smugglers. That these people violated orders from authorities in Canton"
^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. https://books.google.com/books?ei=C1GwTpD3A82M-wbgw9mTAg. "This exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname " ham-shui- mui " (lit. salt water girls), applied to these members of the so-called Tan-ka or boat"
^ Peter Hodge (1980). Peter Hodge. ed. Community problems and social work in Southeast Asia: the Hong Kong and Singapore experience. Hong Kong University Press. p. 33. ISBN 962-209-022-2. https://books.google.com/books?ei=C1GwTpD3A82M-wbgw9mTAg. "exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname " ham-shui- mui " (lit. salt water girls), applied to these members of the so-called Tan-ka or boat"
^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-08-22. https://web.archive.org/web/20160822055907/http://www.clement-jones.com/ps02/ps02_340.htm. Retrieved 2016-08-09.
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^ Minahan, James B (2014). Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 169. ISBN 978-1-61069-017-1.
^ macau – The Las Vegas of the East >>Inscrutable Chinese>>English>>北京仁和博苑中医药研究院 Archived March 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
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^ João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Volume 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology (illustrated ed.). Berg. p. 39. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=GglrUksvCUcC&pg=PA39&dq=portuguese+slave+tanka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=r-NOT8r_JoaQ0QGBhYzdDQ&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=portuguese%20slave%20tanka&f=false. Retrieved 2012-03-01.
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^ Current Anthropological Literature, Volumes 1–2. American Anthropological Association, American Folklore Society. American Anthropological Assosciation and the American Folk-lore Society. 1912. p. 257. https://books.google.com/books?id=UeAqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA257&dq=Treats+briefly+of+Chen+Tean+(of+Hong+Kong),+his+wife,+Inez+Mancha+(a+white+Mexican),+married+in+1907,+and+their+children,+a+boy+(b.+April+14,+1908)+and+a+girl+(b.+Sept.+24,+1909).+The+boy+is+of+marked+Chinese+type,+the+girl+much+more+European.+No+Mongolian+spots+were+noticed+at+birth.+Both+children+were+born+with+red+cheeks.+Neither+has+ever+been+sick.+The+boy+began+to+walk+at+ten+months,+the+girl+a+little+after+a+year.&hl=en&ei=-zRBTp_dOZObtweXwp2mCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Treats%20briefly%20of%20Chen%20Tean%20(of%20Hong%20Kong)%2C%20his%20wife%2C%20Inez%20Mancha%20(a%20white%20Mexican)%2C%20married%20in%201907%2C%20and%20their%20children%2C%20a%20boy%20(b.%20April%2014%2C%201908)%20and%20a%20girl%20(b.%20Sept.%2024%2C%201909).%20The%20boy%20is%20of%20marked%20Chinese%20type%2C%20the%20girl%20much%20more%20European.%20No%20Mongolian%20spots%20were%20noticed%20at%20birth.%20Both%20children%20were%20born%20with%20red%20cheeks.%20Neither%20has%20ever%20been%20sick.%20The%20boy%20began%20to%20walk%20at%20ten%20months%2C%20the%20girl%20a%20little%20after%20a%20year.&f=false. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
^ Current Anthropological Literature, Volume 1. American Anthropological Association, American Folklore Society. American Anthropological Assosciation and the American Folk-lore Society.. 1912. p. 257. https://books.google.com/books?id=mL0TAAAAYAAJ&dq=Treats+briefly+of+Chen+Tean+%28of+Hong+Kong%29%2C+his+wife%2C+Inez+Mancha+%28a+white+Mexican%29%2C+married+in+1907%2C+and+their+children%2C+a+boy+%28b.+April+14%2C+1908%29+and+a+girl+%28b.+Sept.+24%2C+1909%29.+The+boy+is+of+marked+Chinese+type%2C+the+girl+much+more+European.+No+Mongolian+spots+were+noticed+at+birth.+Both+children+were+born+with+red+cheeks.+Neither+has+ever+been+sick.+The+boy+began+to+walk+at+ten+months%2C+the+girl+a+little+after+a+year.&q=chen+tean#v=snippet&q=chen%20tean&f=false. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
^ Current Anthropological Literature, Volumes 1–2. American Anthropological Association, American Folklore Society. American Anthropological Assosciation and the American Folk-lore Society. 1912. p. 257. https://books.google.com/books?id=TkhFAAAAYAAJ&dq=Treats+briefly+of+Chen+Tean+%28of+Hong+Kong%29%2C+his+wife%2C+Inez+Mancha+%28a+white+Mexican%29%2C+married+in+1907%2C+and+their+children%2C+a+boy+%28b.+April+14%2C+1908%29+and+a+girl+%28b.+Sept.+24%2C+1909%29.+The+boy+is+of+marked+Chinese+type%2C+the+girl+much+more+European.+No+Mongolian+spots+were+noticed+at+birth.+Both+children+were+born+with+red+cheeks.+Neither+has+ever+been+sick.+The+boy+began+to+walk+at+ten+months%2C+the+girl+a+little+after+a+year.&q=inez+manchae. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
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^ Engerrand, Georges (1912) (in French). Note sur deux enfants nes d'un Chinois et d'une Mexicaine de race blanche. [microform] (reprint ed.). F. Alcan. p. 125. http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/421839. Retrieved May 17, 2010.
^ Robert Chao Romero (2011). The Chinese in Mexico, 1882–1940 (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Arizona Press. p. 86. ISBN 0816508194. https://books.google.com/books?id=U3GQ7o3HV1cC&pg=PA86#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
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External links[]

sv:Eurasier

[censusgov-1] [1]

[2] "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-02-24. http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-england-and-wales/rft-table-ks201ew.xls. Retrieved 2012-12-25.

[3] "CBS StatLine - Bevolking; generatie, geslacht, leeftijd en herkomstgroepering, 1 januari". http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37325&D1=0&D2=a&D3=0&D4=0&D5=a&D6=l&HDR=G2,G3&STB=G1,G5,T,G4&VW=T. Retrieved 9 January 2018.

[factfinder-4] "American FactFinder". Factfinder2.census.gov. Archived from the original on 2013-09-11. https://web.archive.org/web/20130911234518/http://factfinder2.census.gov/. Retrieved 2014-01-02. Defining Eurasians as those who were marked as both "white" and "Asian", in the 2010 census there were 1,623,234 Eurasians in the United States.

[5] "Demografie van de Indische Nederlanders, 1930–2001" (PDF). http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/482F9147-4512-4E9F-B8EF-BDD3E50607E9/0/2003k1b15p058art.pdf. Retrieved 9 January 2018.

[HKcensus-6] Hong Kong Government. "Ethnic Minorities by Ethnicity and Age Group, 2001, 2006 and 2011 (F401)". http://www.census2011.gov.hk/en/main-table/F401.html. Retrieved 5 February 2014. 24,649 people identified as "Mixed with one Chinese parent", according to the 2011 Hong Kong Census.

[7] [2]

[8] "Culture & identity take centre stage at Eurasian dialogue". Channel NewsAsia (XinMSN). 23 Feb 2013. http://news.xin.msn.com/en/singapore/article.aspx?cp-documentid=251933730. Retrieved 24 Dec 2013. "There are close to 18,000 Eurasians in Singapore".

[9] Jarnagin, Laura (2012). Portuguese and Luso-Asian Legacies in Southeast Asia, 1511–2011: Culture and identity in the Luso-Asian world, tenacities & plasticities. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 268. "Today, there are over twenty-nine thousand Eurasians living in Malaysia, the vast majority of whom are of Portuguese descent."

[10] Yee, H. (12 September 2001). "Macau in Transition: From Colony to Autonomous Region". Springer. https://books.google.com/books?id=9yuGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123&lpg=PA123&dq=eurasians+in+MAcau&source=bl&ots=GvR8Msjk3X&sig=EEdmylsGzA5TXPbc8xgIJim4hyA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUnIfZkdzNAhUGp5QKHeYmBXgQ6AEIXjAM#v=onepage&q=eurasians+in+MAcau&f=false. Retrieved 9 January 2018.

[Dictionary-11] "Eurasian". Dictionary.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Eurasian. Retrieved 2009-01-13.

[12] Current Anthropology, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Feb., 1961), p. 64.

[13] González-Ruiz, Mercedes (2012). "Tracing the Origin of the East-West Population Admixture in the Altai Region (Central Asia)". PLOS ONE 7 (11). DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0048904. PMID 23152818. Retrieved on 23 November 2013.

[14] An Ancient Scytho-Siberian Pair with Asian Ties Archived October 15, 2014, at the Wayback Machine

[15] Fu ren da xue (Beijing, China), S.V.D. Research Institute, Society of the Divine Word - 2003 [3]

[Tumen-16] Tumen D., "Anthropology of Archaeological Populations from Northeast Asia [4] page 25, 27

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[18] Bóna, István: "A Nagyrév-kultúra településeiről", 1991, p.30. In: Hyun Jin Kim, "The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe Archived August 21, 2016, at the Wayback Machine", Cambridge University Press, p.187

[19] Lipták, Pál. Recherches anthropologiques sur les ossements avares des environs d'Üllö Archived April 8, 2014, at archive.today (1955) – In: Acta archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, vol. 6 (1955), pp. 231–314

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[History_of_Transylvania-21] History of Transylvania

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[25] The Royal House of Cambodia, Julio A. Jeldres, Monument Books, 2003, p. 69

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[27] (1946) "One View on the Position of the Eurasian in Indonesian Society". The Journal of Asian Studies 5: 172–175. DOI:10.2307/2049742.

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[35] (2012) "East of the Cape in 1832: The Old Indies World, Empire Families and "Colonial Women" in Nineteenth-century Java". Itinerario 36: 22–48. DOI:10.1017/s0165115312000356.

[latimes-36] Greenbaum-Kasson, E. (2011). "The long way home". The Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimesmagazine.com/2011/02/the-long-way-home.html.

[37] Betts, R. (2004). Decolonization. Psychology Press. p. 81.

[yanowa-38] Yanowa, D. (2012). "People out of place: allochthony and autochthony in the Netherlands' identity discourse—metaphors and categories in action". Journal of International Relations and Development 16: 227–261. DOI:10.1057/jird.2012.13. Retrieved on 5 November 2013.

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[41] Laura Jarnagin (2012). Portuguese and Luso-Asian Legacies in Southeast Asia, 1511–2011: Culture and identity in the Luso-Asian world, tenacities & plasticities. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 268.

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[43] Historical Conservation Society. The Society.. 1963. p. 191. https://books.google.com/books?id=8yc0AAAAIAAJ&q=pesos+Chinese+2,000+spanish+mestizo&dq=pesos+Chinese+2,000+spanish+mestizo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-zcPBjN7RAhUr4oMKHYyIAd0Q6AEITjAF.

[Mas19632-44] Sinibaldo De Mas (1963). Informe secreto de Sinibaldo de Más. Historical Conservation Society. p. 191. https://books.google.com/books?id=22gKAQAAIAAJ&q=pesos+Chinese+2,000+spanish+mestizo&dq=pesos+marry+spanish+women+mestizo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-zcPBjN7RAhUr4oMKHYyIAd0Q6AEIYjAI.

[Liao19642-45] Shubert S. C. Liao (1964). Chinese participation in Philippine culture and economy. Bookman. p. 30. https://books.google.com/books?id=vrDkAAAAIAAJ&q=pesos+Chinese+2,000+spanish+mestizo&dq=pesos+Chinese+2,000+spanish+mestizo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX_5C0jd7RAhXr7YMKHbOwCWIQ6AEIHzAB.

[Blair19152-46] Emma Helen Blair (1915). The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898: Relating to China and the Chinese. A.H. Clark Company. pp. 85–87. https://books.google.com/books?id=FrJEAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA86&dq=pesos+Chinese+2,000+spanish+mestizo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-zcPBjN7RAhUr4oMKHYyIAd0Q6AEILTAA#v=onepage&q=pesos%20Chinese%202%2C000%20spanish%20mestizo&f=false.

[47] L. Hunt, Chester, "Sociology in the Philippine setting: A modular approach", p. 118, Phoenix Pub. House, 1954

[48] Frederic H. Sawyer, "The Inhabitants of the Philippines, p. 125, New York, 1900

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[51] Reid, Anthony (1990). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680: The lands below the winds. Volume 1 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680 (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0-300-04750-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=lqyJViWXkVsC&pg=PA165&dq=vietnamese+woman+portuguese+macau+cochin+china+spoke&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1yyEVPj0Fa_gsASstoCQCQ&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA. Retrieved December 10, 2014.

[52] MacLeod, Murdo J.; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida, eds (1998). European Intruders and Changes in Behaviour and Customs in Africa, America, and Asia Before 1800. Volume 30 of An Expanding World, the European Impact on World History, 1450–1800, Vol 30 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Ashgate. p. 636. ISBN 0-86078-522-X. https://books.google.com/books?id=-CmAAAAAMAAJ&q=636+ANTHONY+REID+excellent+Portuguese+and+Malay+and+had+long+resided+in+Macao.+She,+along+with+another+elderly+woman+who+had+had+two+Portuguese+husbands+as+well+as+one+Vietnamese,+had+been+the+principal+translator+for+the+Cochin-China+court+for+30+years+(Wonderaer,+1602:+22,+38).+Similarly+...+She+was+'a+prodigy+of+learning',+spoke+Chinese,+Thai,+Chuliah,+Bengali+and+Acehnese+and+knew+the+politics+of+all+the+Sumatran+coastal+states+intimately+(Anderson,+1826:+44-5).&dq=636+ANTHONY+REID+excellent+Portuguese+and+Malay+and+had+long+resided+in+Macao.+She,+along+with+another+elderly+woman+who+had+had+two+Portuguese+husbands+as+well+as+one+Vietnamese,+had+been+the+principal+translator+for+the+Cochin-China+court+for+30+years+(Wonderaer,+1602:+22,+38).+Similarly+...+She+was+'a+prodigy+of+learning',+spoke+Chinese,+Thai,+Chuliah,+Bengali+and+Acehnese+and+knew+the+politics+of+all+the+Sumatran+coastal+states+intimately+(Anderson,+1826:+44-5).&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wSyEVMbRG_WKsQSK5IKgCw&ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA. Retrieved December 10, 2014.

[53] Hughes, Sarah S.; Hughes, Brady, eds (1995). Women in World History: Readings from prehistory to 1500. Volume 1 of Sources and studies in world history (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. p. 219. ISBN 1-56324-311-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=05WyAAAAIAAJ&q=Thus+the+first+Dutch+mission+to+Cochin-China+found+that+the+king+dealt+with+them+through+a+Vietnamese+woman+who+spoke+excellent+Portuguese+and+Malay+and+had+long+resided+in+Macao.+She,+along++with+another+elderly+woman+who+had+had+two+Portuguese+husbands+as+well+as+one+Vietnamese,+had+been+the+principal+translator+for+the+Cochin-China+court+for+thirty+years.&dq=Thus+the+first+Dutch+mission+to+Cochin-China+found+that+the+king+dealt+with+them+through+a+Vietnamese+woman+who+spoke+excellent+Portuguese+and+Malay+and+had+long+resided+in+Macao.+She,+along++with+another+elderly+woman+who+had+had+two+Portuguese+husbands+as+well+as+one+Vietnamese,+had+been+the+principal+translator+for+the+Cochin-China+court+for+thirty+years.&hl=en&sa=X&ei=gSyEVML-PKPGsQTu5oL4DA&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ. Retrieved December 10, 2014.

[54] Tingley, Nancy (2009). Asia Society. Museum. ed. Arts of Ancient Viet Nam: From River Plain to Open Sea. Andreas Reinecke, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (illustrated ed.). Asia Society. p. 249. ISBN 0-300-14696-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=G6M0AQAAIAAJ&q=Portuguese+traders+married+Vietnamese+women,+which+helped+consolidate+cross-cultural+exchanges.+...+They+spoke+excellent+Portuguese+and+Malay+because+they+had+spent+a+large+part+of+their+lives+in+Macao+as+wives+of+Portuguese+men.&dq=Portuguese+traders+married+Vietnamese+women,+which+helped+consolidate+cross-cultural+exchanges.+...+They+spoke+excellent+Portuguese+and+Malay+because+they+had+spent+a+large+part+of+their+lives+in+Macao+as+wives+of+Portuguese+men.&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cSuEVKiWKZDbsATnzIGgCw&ved=0CBYQ6AEwAA. Retrieved December 10, 2014.

[55] Hamilton, Alexander (1997). Smithies, Michael. ed. Alexander Hamilton: A Scottish Sea Captain in Southeast Asia, 1689–1723 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Silkworm Books. p. 205. ISBN 9747100452. https://books.google.com/books?id=74FuAAAAMAAJ&q=thought+it+no+Shame+or+Disgrace+to+marry+their+daughters+to+English+and+Dutch+Seamen,+for+the+they+were+to+stay+in+,+and+often+presented+their+Son+in+Law+pretty+handsomely&dq=thought+it+no+Shame+or+Disgrace+to+marry+their+daughters+to+English+and+Dutch+Seamen,+for+the+they+were+to+stay+in+,+and+often+presented+their+Son+in+Law+pretty+handsomely&hl=en&sa=X&ei=fVyNVJnzDYK1ggSPtoOACw&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw. Retrieved December 10, 2014.

[Chiu-56] Patricia Pok‐kwan Chiu (November 2008). "‘A position of usefulness’: gendering history of girls’ education in colonial Hong Kong (1850s–1890s)". History of Education: Journal of the History of Education Society 37 (6).

[57] Meiqi Lee (2004). Being Eurasian: Memories Across Racial Divides (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 262. ISBN 962-209-671-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=mVGd71y1Y-0C&pg=PA262&dq=eitel+half+caste&hl=en&ei=cKqxTv2HM6fj0QHnmtzeAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=eitel%20half%20caste&f=false. Retrieved 2011-11-02. "EJ Eitel, in the late 1890s, claims that the 'half-caste population in Hong Kong ' were from the earliest days of the settlement almost exclusively the offspring of liaisons between European men and women of outcaste ethnic groups such as Tanka (Europe in, 169). Lethbridge refutes the theory saying it was based on a 'myth' propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community. Carl Smith's study in the late 1960s on the protected women seems, to some degree, support Eitel's theory. Smith says that the Tankas experienced certain restrictions within the traditional Chinese social structure. Custom precluded their intermarriage with the Cantonese and Hakka-speaking populations. The Tanka women did not have bound feet. Their opportunities for settlement on shore were limited. They were hence not as closely tied to Confucian ethics as other Chinese ethnic groups. Being a group marginal to the traditional Chinese society of the Puntis (Cantonese), they did not have the same social pressure in dealing with Europeans (CT Smith, Chung Chi Bulletin, 27). 'Living under the protection of a foreigner,' says Smith, 'could be a ladder to financial security, if not respectability, for some of the Tanka boat girls' (13 )."

[58] Maria Jaschok, Suzanne Miers (1994). Maria Jaschok, Suzanne Miers. ed. Women and Chinese patriarchy: submission, servitude, and escape (illustrated ed.). Zed Books. p. 223. ISBN 1-85649-126-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=f5o_t7VxHYAC&pg=PA223&dq=eitel+half+caste&hl=en&ei=N7OxTsPpMKjZ0QHu_KXVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=eitel%20half%20caste&f=false. Retrieved 2011-11-01. "He states that they had a near- monopoly of the trade in girls and women, and that: The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day, almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka people. But, like the Tan-ka people themselves, they are happily under the influence of a process of continuous re-absorption in the mass of Chinese residents of the Colony (1895 p. 169)"

[59] Helen F. Siu (2011). Helen F. Siu. ed. Merchants' Daughters: Women, Commerce, and Regional Culture in South. Hong Kong University Press. p. 305. ISBN 988-8083-48-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=gM9cMIxjoVcC&pg=PA305&dq=eitel+half+caste&hl=en&ei=N7OxTsPpMKjZ0QHu_KXVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=eitel%20half%20caste&f=false. Retrieved 2011-11-02. ""The half-caste population of Hongkong were . . . almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka women." EJ Eitel, Europe in, the History of Hongkong from the Beginning to the Year 1882 (Taipei: Chen-Wen Publishing Co., originally published in Hong Kong by Kelly and Walsh. 1895, 1968), 169."

[60] Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. https://books.google.com/books?ei=VbqxTpHrAarg0QGggaGoAQ&ct=result&id=hm4JAQAAIAAJ&dq=The+half-caste+population+in+Hong+Kong+were%2C+from+the+earliest+days+of+the+settlement+of+the+Colony+and+down+to+the+present+day+%5B1895%5D%2C+almost+exclusively+the+off-spring+of+these+Tan-ka&q=off+spring. Retrieved 2011-11-01. "The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day [1895], almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people"

[61] Andrew, Elizabeth Wheeler; Bushnell, Katharine Caroline (2006). Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers. Echo Library. p. 11. ISBN 1-4068-0431-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=vv_qNljtPtUC&pg=PA11&dq=tanka+tribes+aboriginal&hl=en&ei=85E1TrTOEIvpgAfPuZXvDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 31 October 2011.

[62] John Mark Carroll (2007). A concise history of Hong Kong (illustrated ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 36. ISBN 0-7425-3422-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=D37ijXG-FykC&pg=PA36&dq=Most+of+the+Chinese+who+came+to+Hong+Kong+in+the+early+years+were+from+the+lower+classes,+such+as+laborers,+artisans,+Tanka+outcasts,+prostitutes,+wanderers,+and+smugglers.+That+these+people+violated+orders+from+authorities+in+Canton&hl=en&ei=q2awToSVG8Xa0QG51M3RAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Most%20of%20the%20Chinese%20who%20came%20to%20Hong%20Kong%20in%20the%20early%20years%20were%20from%20the%20lower%20classes%2C%20such%20as%20laborers%2C%20artisans%2C%20Tanka%20outcasts%2C%20prostitutes%2C%20wanderers%2C%20and%20smugglers.%20That%20these%20people%20violated%20orders%20from%20authorities%20in%20Canton&f=false. "Most of the Chinese who came to Hong Kong in the early years were from the lower classes, such as labourers, artisans, Tanka outcasts, prostitutes, wanderers, and smugglers. That these people violated orders from authorities in Canton"

[63] Maria Jaschok; Suzanne Miers (1994). Women and Chinese patriarchy: submission, servitude, and escape (illustrated ed.). Zed Books. p. 237. ISBN 1-85649-126-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=f5o_t7VxHYAC&pg=PA237&dq=tanka+prostitutes&hl=en&ei=qkKwTozYNuP50gGYoa3gAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=tanka%20prostitutes&f=false. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "I am indebted to Dr Maria Jaschok for drawing my attention to Sun Guoqun's work on Chinese prostitution and for a reference to Tanka prostitutes who served Western clients. In this they were unlike typical prostitutes who were so unaccustomed to the appearance of western men that 'they were all afraid of them'."

[64] Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. https://books.google.com/books?ei=oFWwTpOfEoHg0QGBtYzjAQ&ct=result&id=hm4JAQAAIAAJ&dq=but+another+source+of+supply+was+the+daughters+of+the+tanka%2C+the+boat+population+of+kwangtung&q=tanka+daughters. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "but another source of supply was the daughters of the tanka, the boat population of kwangtung"

[65] Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. https://books.google.com/books?id=hm4JAQAAIAAJ&q=The+Tanka,+it+seems,+not+only+supplied+foreign+shipping+with+provisions+but+foreigners+with+mistresses.+They+also+supplied+brothels+with+some+of+their+inmates.+As+a+socially+disadvantaged+group,+they+found+prostitution+a+convenient&dq=The+Tanka,+it+seems,+not+only+supplied+foreign+shipping+with+provisions+but+foreigners+with+mistresses.+They+also+supplied+brothels+with+some+of+their+inmates.+As+a+socially+disadvantaged+group,+they+found+prostitution+a+convenient&hl=en&ei=00-wTvapAsX0-gaG6eW2Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "The Tanka, it seems, not only supplied foreign shipping with provisions but foreigners with mistresses. They also supplied brothels with some of their inmates. As a socially disadvantaged group, they found prostitution a convenient"

[66] Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 210. https://books.google.com/books?ei=_VKwTtylOcT50gGg9-mjAQ&ct=result&id=hm4JAQAAIAAJ&dq=In+the+early+days%2C+such+women+were+found+usually+among+the+Tanka+boat+population+%2C+a+pariah+group+that+infested+the+Pearl+River+delta+region.+A+few+of+these+women+achieved+the+status+of+%27protected%27+woman+%28a+kept+mistress%29+and+were&q=women+tanka+pariah. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "In the early days, such women were found usually among the Tanka boat population, a pariah group that infested the Pearl River delta region. A few of these women achieved the status of 'protected' woman (a kept mistress) and were"

[67] Fanny M. Cheung (1997). Fanny M. Cheung. ed. EnGendering Hong Kong society: a gender perspective of women's status (illustrated ed.). Chinese University Press. p. 348. ISBN 962-201-736-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=E45DHTYdTmAC&pg=PA348&dq=twentieth+century,+in+women+doubly+marginalized:+as+members+of+a+despised+ethnic+group+of+Tanka+Boat+people,+and+as+prostitutes+engaged+in+%22contemptible%22+sexual+intercourse+with+Western+men.+In+the+empirical+work+done+by+CT+Smith+(1994)&hl=en&ei=iV-wTrqQMsHr0gHY5Py2AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=twentieth%20century%2C%20in%20women%20doubly%20marginalized%3A%20as%20members%20of%20a%20despised%20ethnic%20group%20of%20Tanka%20Boat%20people%2C%20and%20as%20prostitutes%20engaged%20in%20%22contemptible%22%20sexual%20intercourse%20with%20Western%20men.%20In%20the%20empirical%20work%20done%20by%20CT%20Smith%20(1994)&f=false. Retrieved 1 November 2011. "twentieth century, in women doubly marginalised: as members of a despised ethnic group of Tanka Boat people, and as prostitutes engaged in "contemptible" sexual intercourse with Western men. In the empirical work done by CT Smith (1994"

[68] Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew, Katharine Caroline Bushnell (1907). Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers. Echo Library. p. 11. ISBN 1-4068-0431-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=vv_qNljtPtUC&pg=PA11.

[69] John Mark Carroll (2007). A concise history of Hong Kong. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 36. ISBN 0-7425-3422-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=D37ijXG-FykC&pg=PA36. "Most of the Chinese who came to Hong Kong in the early years were from the lower classes, such as laborers, artisans, Tanka outcasts, prostitutes, wanderers, and smugglers. That these people violated orders from authorities in Canton"

[70] Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. https://books.google.com/books?ei=C1GwTpD3A82M-wbgw9mTAg. "This exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname " ham-shui- mui " (lit. salt water girls), applied to these members of the so-called Tan-ka or boat"

[71] Peter Hodge (1980). Peter Hodge. ed. Community problems and social work in Southeast Asia: the Hong Kong and Singapore experience. Hong Kong University Press. p. 33. ISBN 962-209-022-2. https://books.google.com/books?ei=C1GwTpD3A82M-wbgw9mTAg. "exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname " ham-shui- mui " (lit. salt water girls), applied to these members of the so-called Tan-ka or boat"

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