Changes: Egypt

Revision as of 06:12, 28 June 2009

Template:Sprotect2

This article is about the country of Egypt. For other uses, see Egypt (disambiguation).

{{Infobox Country |native_name = جمهورية مصر العربية
Gumhūriyyat Miṣr al-ʿArabiyyah |conventional_long_name = Arab Republic of Egypt |common_name = Egypt |image_flag = Flag of Egypt.svg |image_coat = COA of Egypt.svg |image_map = LocationEgypt.svg The national_motto = |national_anthem = Bilady |official_languages = Arabic¹ |demonym = Egyptian |capital = Cairo |latd=30 |latm=2 |latNS=N |longd=31 |longm=13 |longEW=E |largest_city = capital |government_type = Semi-presidential republic |leader_title1 = President |leader_name1 = Hosni Mubarak |leader_title2 = Prime Minister |leader_name2 = Ahmed Nazif |sovereignty_type = Establishment |established_event1 = First Dynasty |established_date1 = c.3150 BCE |established_event2 = Independence from United Kingdom |established_date2 = February 28 1922 |established_event3 = Republic declared |established_date3 = June 18 1953 |area_rank = 30th |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |area_km2 = 1,001,449 |area_sq_mi = 386,660 The Egyptian Armed forces have a combined troop strength of around 450,000 active personnel.^[1] According to the Israeli chair of the Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, Yuval Steinitz, the Egyptian Air Force has roughly the same number of modern warplanes as the Israeli Air Force and far more Western tanks, artillery, anti-aircraft batteries and warships than the IDF.^[2] The Egyptian military has recently undergone massive military modernization mostly in their Air Force. Other than Israel, Egypt is the first country in the region with a spy satellite, EgyptSat 1, and is planning to launch 3 more spy satellites (DesertSat1, EgyptSat2, DesertSat2) over the next two years.^[3]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Egypt

At 386,636 mi² (1,001,450 km²^[4]), Egypt is the world's thirtieth-largest country (after Mauritania). It is comparable in size to Tanzania, twice the size of France, four times the size of the UK, and is more than half the size of the US state of Alaska.

Nevertheless, due to the aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that approximately 99% of the population uses only about 5.5% of the total land area.^[5]

Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a transcontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, which in turn is traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea.

Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is a sandy desert. The winds blowing can create sand dunes over one hundred feet high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara Desert and of the Libyan Desert. These deserts were referred to as the "red land" in ancient Egypt, and they protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats.

Towns and cities include Alexandria, one of the greatest ancient cities, Aswan, Asyut, Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital, El-Mahalla El-Kubra, Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu, Hurghada, Luxor, Kom Ombo, Port Safaga, Port Said, Sharm el Sheikh, Suez, where the Suez Canal is located, Zagazig, and Al-Minya. Oases include Bahariya, el Dakhla, Farafra, el Kharga and Siwa.

Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa. See Egyptian Protectorates for more information.

Climate

Egypt receives the least rainfall in the world. South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 170 mm (7 in), all between November and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of its middle and coastal cities.

Temperatures average between 80 and 90 °F (27 - 32 °C) in summer, and up to 109 °F (42 °C) on the Red Sea coast. Temperatures average between 55 and 70 °F (13 to 21 °C) in winter. A steady wind from the northwest helps hold down the temperature near the Mediterranean coast. The Khamaseen is a wind that blows from the south in Egypt, usually in spring or summer, bringing sand and dust, and sometimes raises the temperature in the desert to more than 100 °F (38 °C).

Notes and references

^ Egypt Military Strength
^ Steinitz, Yuval. Not the peace we expected. Haaretz. December 05, 2006.
^ Katz, Yaacov. "Egypt to launch first spy satellite," Jerusalem Post, January 15, 2007.
^ World Factbook area rank order
^ Hamza, Waleed. Land use and Coastal Management in the Third Countries: Egypt as a case. Accessed= 2007-06-10.

General references

Template:CIAfb
This article contains material from the US Department of State's Background Notes which, as a US government publication, is in the public domain.

External links

Find more about Egypt on Wikipedia's sister projects:

	Definitions from Wiktionary
	Textbooks from Wikibooks
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Images and media from Commons
	News stories from Wikinews
	Learning resources from Wikiversity

Ancient Egyptian Civilization - Aldokkan
Rural poverty in Egypt (IFAD)
Encyclopaedia Britannica's Egypt Country Page
Egyptian Government Services Portal
New Projects in Egypt
Egypt State Information Services
Egypt Information Portal - available in Arabic and English
BBC News Country Profile - Egypt
CIA World Factbook - Egypt
Amnesty International's 2005 Report on Egypt.
US State Department - Egypt includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
Business Anti-Corruption Portal Egypt Country Profile
Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Egypt
Egypt at the Open Directory Project
Template:Wikitravel
Egypt Maps - Perry-Castañeda Map Collection
Egyptian History (urdu)
By Nile and Tigris, a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913, by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, 1920 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)
Egypt Online Directory
The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights
PortSaid Free-zone forums

This page uses content from the English language Wikipedia. The original content was at Egypt. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with this Familypedia wiki, the content of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons License.

[1] Egypt Military Strength

[2] Steinitz, Yuval. Not the peace we expected. Haaretz. December 05, 2006.

[3] Katz, Yaacov. "Egypt to launch first spy satellite," Jerusalem Post, January 15, 2007.

[4] World Factbook area rank order

[5] Hamza, Waleed. Land use and Coastal Management in the Third Countries: Egypt as a case. Accessed= 2007-06-10.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

Changes: Egypt

Revision as of 06:12, 28 June 2009

Contents

Geography

Climate

See also

Lists

Notes and references

External links

@@ Line 31: / Line 31: @@
 |area_km2                     = 1,001,449
 |area_sq_mi                  = 386,660 <!--Do not remove per |percent_water            = 0.632
-|population_estimate      = 80,335,036 (est.)<ref name="CIA Pop">"[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html Egypt]" in the ''{{subst:#ifexist:CIA World Factbook|[[CIA World Factbook|]]|[[Wikipedia:CIA World Factbook|]]}}'', 2007.</ref>
+|population_estimate      = 80,335,036 (est.)<ref name="CIA Pop">"[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html Egypt]" in the ''[[CIA World Factbook]]'', 2007.</ref>
 |population_estimate_year = 2007
 |population_census        = 59,312,914
@@ Line 49: / Line 49: @@
 |Gini_year                = 1999–00
 |Gini_category            = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font>
-|currency                 = {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian pound|[[Egyptian pound|]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian pound|]]}}
+|currency                 = [[Egyptian pound]]
 |currency_code            = EGP
-|time_zone_DST            = {{subst:#ifexist:Eastern European Summer Time|[[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]|[[Wikipedia:Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]}}
+|time_zone_DST            = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
 |utc_offset_DST           = +3
-|cctld                    = {{subst:#ifexist:.eg|[[.eg|]]|[[Wikipedia:.eg|]]}}
+|cctld                    = [[.eg]]
 |calling_code             = 20
-|footnote1                = Spoken language is {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian Arabic|[[Egyptian Arabic|]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian Arabic|]]}}.
+|footnote1                = Spoken language is [[Egyptian Arabic]].
 }}
+'''Egypt''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]''&nbsp;; [[Egyptian Arabic]].
-'''Egypt''' ({{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian language|[[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian language|Egyptian]]}}: ''Kemet''; {{subst:#ifexist:Coptic language|[[Coptic language|Coptic]]|[[Wikipedia:Coptic language|Coptic]]}}: '''{{Coptic|Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ}}''' ''Kīmi''; {{subst:#ifexist:Arabic language|[[Arabic language|Arabic]]|[[Wikipedia:Arabic language|Arabic]]}}: '''<big> مصر </big>''' ''{{transl|ar|Miṣr}}''&nbsp;; {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian Arabic|[[Egyptian Arabic|]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian Arabic|]]}}: ''{{transl|ar-EGP|Máṣr}}''), officially the '''Arab Republic of Egypt''', is a country in {{subst:#ifexist:North Africa|[[North Africa|]]|[[Wikipedia:North Africa|]]}} that includes the {{subst:#ifexist:Sinai Peninsula|[[Sinai Peninsula|]]|[[Wikipedia:Sinai Peninsula|]]}}, a land bridge to {{subst:#ifexist:Asia|[[Asia|]]|[[Wikipedia:Asia|]]}}. Covering an area of about 1,001,450 square kilometers (386,560&nbsp;sq mi), Egypt borders {{subst:#ifexist:Libya|[[Libya|]]|[[Wikipedia:Libya|]]}} to the west, {{subst:#ifexist:Sudan|[[Sudan|]]|[[Wikipedia:Sudan|]]}} to the south, and the {{subst:#ifexist:Gaza Strip|[[Gaza Strip|]]|[[Wikipedia:Gaza Strip|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Israel|[[Israel|]]|[[Wikipedia:Israel|]]}} to the east. The northern coast borders the {{subst:#ifexist:Mediterranean Sea|[[Mediterranean Sea|]]|[[Wikipedia:Mediterranean Sea|]]}} and the island of {{subst:#ifexist:Cyprus|[[Cyprus|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cyprus|]]}}; the eastern coast borders the {{subst:#ifexist:Red Sea|[[Red Sea|]]|[[Wikipedia:Red Sea|]]}}.
+Egypt is one of the most populous countries in [[Africa]].
-Egypt is one of the most populous countries in {{subst:#ifexist:Africa|[[Africa|]]|[[Wikipedia:Africa|]]}}. The great majority of its estimated 78 million people (2007) live near the banks of the {{subst:#ifexist:Nile River|[[Nile River|]]|[[Wikipedia:Nile River|]]}} in an area of about 40,000&nbsp;km² (15,000&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi) where the only {{subst:#ifexist:arable|[[arable|]]|[[Wikipedia:arable|]]}} agricultural land is found. The large areas of the {{subst:#ifexist:Sahara|[[Sahara|]]|[[Wikipedia:Sahara|]]}} {{subst:#ifexist:Desert|[[Desert|]]|[[Wikipedia:Desert|]]}} are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with the majority spread across the densely populated centers of greater {{subst:#ifexist:Cairo|[[Cairo|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cairo|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Alexandria|[[Alexandria|]]|[[Wikipedia:Alexandria|]]}} and other major cities in the {{subst:#ifexist:Nile Delta|[[Nile Delta|]]|[[Wikipedia:Nile Delta|]]}}.
-Egypt is famous for its {{subst:#ifexist:Ancient Egypt|[[Ancient Egypt|ancient civilization]]|[[Wikipedia:Ancient Egypt|ancient civilization]]}} and some of the world's most famous monuments, including the {{subst:#ifexist:Giza pyramid complex|[[Giza pyramid complex|]]|[[Wikipedia:Giza pyramid complex|]]}} and the {{subst:#ifexist:Great Sphinx of Giza|[[Great Sphinx of Giza|Great Sphinx]]|[[Wikipedia:Great Sphinx of Giza|Great Sphinx]]}}.  The southern city of {{subst:#ifexist:Luxor|[[Luxor|]]|[[Wikipedia:Luxor|]]}} contains numerous ancient artifacts, such as the {{subst:#ifexist:Karnak|[[Karnak|]]|[[Wikipedia:Karnak|]]}} Temple and the {{subst:#ifexist:Valley of the Kings|[[Valley of the Kings|]]|[[Wikipedia:Valley of the Kings|]]}}. Egypt is widely regarded as an important political and cultural nation of the {{subst:#ifexist:Middle East|[[Middle East|]]|[[Wikipedia:Middle East|]]}}.<ref>[http://www.brook.edu/press/books/chapter_1/nucleartippingpoint.pdf The Nuclear Tipping Point, P.15]</ref><ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2003/02/mil-030207-usia02.htm U.S., Egyptian Speakers Say Partnership Must Continue, Expand ]</ref><ref>[http://www.namnewsnetwork.org/cth2.php?nn=egy2FShowFulltml Egypt].</ref><ref>[http://www.meepas.com/egypttradediplomaticrelationswithUS.htm Egypt-Trade and Diplomatic Relations with the US]</ref>
+Egypt is famous for its [[Ancient Egypt|ancient civilization]] and some of the world's most famous monuments, including the [[Giza pyramid complex]].<ref>[http://www.brook.edu/press/books/chapter_1/nucleartippingpoint.pdf The Nuclear Tipping Point, P.15]</ref><ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2003/02/mil-030207-usia02.htm U.S., Egyptian Speakers Say Partnership Must Continue, Expand ]</ref><ref>[http://www.namnewsnetwork.org/cth2.php?nn=egy2FShowFulltml Egypt].</ref><ref>[http://www.meepas.com/egypttradediplomaticrelationswithUS.htm Egypt-Trade and Diplomatic Relations with the US]</ref>
 == Etymology ==
 {{Hiero | ''km.t'' (Egypt) | <hiero>km-m-t:niwt</hiero> | align=left | era=default}}
+One of the ancient [[Coptic language|Coptic]]'' "land of the riverbank". The names of [[Upper and Lower Egypt]]) "northland", respectively.
-One of the ancient {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian language|[[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian language|Egyptian]]}} names of the country, ''Kemet''<ref>SenenAnep Meritamen. "English to Egyptians Dictionary." posted 29 Aug 2004. ''Ancient Worlds''. AncientWorlds LLC, 2002 <http://www.ancientworlds.net/399761>.</ref> ({{transl|egy-Latn|kṃt}}), or "black land" (from ''kem'' "black"), is derived from the fertile black soils deposited by the Nile floods, distinct from the ''deshret'', or "red land" ({{transl|egy-Latn|dšṛt}}), of the desert. The name is realized as ''{{lang|cop-Latn|kīmi}}'' and ''{{lang|cop-Latn|kīmə}}'' in the {{subst:#ifexist:Coptic language|[[Coptic language|Coptic]]|[[Wikipedia:Coptic language|Coptic]]}} stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as {{Polytonic|Χημία}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|Kymeía}}''). Another name was ''{{lang|egy-Latn|t3-mry}}'' "land of the riverbank". The names of {{subst:#ifexist:Upper and Lower Egypt|[[Upper and Lower Egypt|]]|[[Wikipedia:Upper and Lower Egypt|]]}} were ''Ta-Sheme'aw''  ({{transl|egy-Latn|t3-šmˁw}}) "sedgeland" and ''Ta-Mehew'' ({{transl|egy-Latn|t3 mḥw}}) "northland", respectively.
-''{{transl|ar|Miṣr}}'', the {{subst:#ifexist:Arabic language|[[Arabic language|Arabic]]|[[Wikipedia:Arabic language|Arabic]]}} and modern official name of Egypt ({{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian Arabic|[[Egyptian Arabic|]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian Arabic|]]}}: ''{{transl|arz-Latn|Maṣr}}''), is of {{subst:#ifexist:Semitic|[[Semitic|]]|[[Wikipedia:Semitic|]]}} origin, directly {{subst:#ifexist:cognate|[[cognate|]]|[[Wikipedia:cognate|]]}} with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the {{subst:#ifexist:Hebrew language|[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]|[[Wikipedia:Hebrew language|Hebrew]]}} {{lang-Hebrew2|מִצְרַיִם}} (''{{transl|he|Mitzráyim}}''), literally meaning "the two straits" (a reference to the dynastic separation of upper and lower Egypt).<ref name="hebrewname">[http://www.ancient-hebrew.org/emagazine/011.html Biblical Hebrew E-Magazine. January, 2005]</ref> The word originally connoted "metropolis" or "civilization" and also means "country", or "frontier-land".
+''{{transl|ar|Miṣr}}'', the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and modern official name of Egypt ([[Egyptian Arabic]]''), literally meaning "the two straits" (a reference to the dynastic separation of upper and lower Egypt).<ref name="hebrewname">[http://www.ancient-hebrew.org/emagazine/011.html Biblical Hebrew E-Magazine. January, 2005]</ref> The word originally connoted "metropolis" or "civilization" and also means "country", or "frontier-land".
+The English name "Egypt" came via the [[Latin]]), meaning "below the Aegean".
-The English name "Egypt" came via the {{subst:#ifexist:Latin|[[Latin|]]|[[Wikipedia:Latin|]]}} word ''{{lang|la|Aegyptus}}'' derived from the {{subst:#ifexist:ancient Greek|[[ancient Greek|]]|[[Wikipedia:ancient Greek|]]}} word ''Aígyptos'' ({{lang|grc|Αίγυπτος}}). The adjective ''aigýpti, aigýptios'' was borrowed into Coptic as ''gyptios, kyptios'', and from there into Arabic as ''{{transl|ar|qubṭī}}'', back formed into ''{{transl|ar|qubṭ}}'', whence English ''{{subst:#ifexist:Copt|[[Copt|]]|[[Wikipedia:Copt|]]}}''. The term is derived from {{subst:#ifexist:Late Egyptian|[[Late Egyptian|]]|[[Wikipedia:Late Egyptian|]]}} ''Hikuptah'' "Memphis", a corruption of the earlier {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian language|[[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian language|Egyptian]]}} name ''Hat-ka-Ptah'' ({{transl|egy-Latn|ḥwt-k3-ptḥ}}), meaning "home of the {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian soul|[[Egyptian soul|ka]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian soul|ka]]}} (soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god {{subst:#ifexist:Ptah|[[Ptah|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ptah|]]}} at {{subst:#ifexist:Memphis, Egypt|[[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]|[[Wikipedia:Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]}}.  {{subst:#ifexist:Strabo|[[Strabo|]]|[[Wikipedia:Strabo|]]}} provided a {{subst:#ifexist:folk etymology|[[folk etymology|]]|[[Wikipedia:folk etymology|]]}} according to which ''Aígyptos'' ({{lang|grc|Αίγυπτος }}) had evolved as a compound from ''{{lang|grc-Latn|Aegaeon uptiōs}}'' ({{transl|grc|Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως}}), meaning "below the Aegean".
 == History ==
-[[Image:N517266177 30554 627.jpg|thumb|The {{subst:#ifexist:Nile River|[[Nile River|]]|[[Wikipedia:Nile River|]]}} in Egypt.]]
+[[Image:N517266177 30554 627.jpg|thumb|The [[Nile River]] in Egypt.]]
 {{main|History of Egypt|Ancient Egypt|Egyptians}}
+The [[Nile Valley|Nile]] has been a site of continuous human habitation since at least the [[Paleolithic]].<ref>Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. ''The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.</ref>
-The {{subst:#ifexist:Nile Valley|[[Nile Valley|Nile]]|[[Wikipedia:Nile Valley|Nile]]}} has been a site of continuous human habitation since at least the {{subst:#ifexist:Paleolithic|[[Paleolithic|]]|[[Wikipedia:Paleolithic|]]}} era. Evidence of this appears in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the {{subst:#ifexist:Nile|[[Nile|]]|[[Wikipedia:Nile|]]}} terraces and in the desert oases. In the {{subst:#ifexist:10th millennium BC|[[10th millennium BC|]]|[[Wikipedia:10th millennium BC|]]}}, a culture of {{subst:#ifexist:hunter-gatherer|[[hunter-gatherer|]]|[[Wikipedia:hunter-gatherer|]]}}s and {{subst:#ifexist:fishing|[[fishing|fishers]]|[[Wikipedia:fishing|fishers]]}} replaced a {{subst:#ifexist:cereal|[[cereal|grain]]|[[Wikipedia:cereal|grain]]}}-grinding {{subst:#ifexist:culture|[[culture|]]|[[Wikipedia:culture|]]}}. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt,  forming the {{subst:#ifexist:Sahara|[[Sahara|]]|[[Wikipedia:Sahara|]]}}. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled {{subst:#ifexist:agriculture|[[agriculture|agricultural]]|[[Wikipedia:agriculture|agricultural]]}} {{subst:#ifexist:Economic system|[[Economic system|economy]]|[[Wikipedia:Economic system|economy]]}} and more centralized {{subst:#ifexist:society|[[society|]]|[[Wikipedia:society|]]}}.<ref>Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. ''The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.</ref>
+By about 6000 BC, organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the Nile Valley. During the [[Neolithic]] III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC.<ref>Bard, Kathryn A. Ian Shaw, ed. ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 69.</ref>
-By about 6000 BC, organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the Nile Valley. During the {{subst:#ifexist:Neolithic|[[Neolithic|]]|[[Wikipedia:Neolithic|]]}} era, several {{subst:#ifexist:Predynastic Egypt|[[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic]]|[[Wikipedia:Predynastic Egypt|predynastic]]}} cultures developed independently in {{subst:#ifexist:Upper and Lower Egypt|[[Upper and Lower Egypt|]]|[[Wikipedia:Upper and Lower Egypt|]]}}. The {{subst:#ifexist:Badarian|[[Badarian|]]|[[Wikipedia:Badarian|]]}} culture and the successor {{subst:#ifexist:Naqada|[[Naqada|]]|[[Wikipedia:Naqada|]]}} series are generally regarded as precursors to {{subst:#ifexist:Ancient Egypt|[[Ancient Egypt|Dynastic Egyptian civilization]]|[[Wikipedia:Ancient Egypt|Dynastic Egyptian civilization]]}}. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining somewhat culturally separate, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian hieroglyphs|[[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Egyptian hieroglyphic]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian hieroglyphs|Egyptian hieroglyphic]]}} inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on {{subst:#ifexist:Naqada|[[Naqada|]]|[[Wikipedia:Naqada|]]}} III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC.<ref>Bard, Kathryn A. Ian Shaw, ed. ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 69.</ref>
+{{Hiero | ''tAwy'' ('Two Lands') | <hiero>N16:N16</hiero> | align=left | era=default}}A unified kingdom was founded circa 3150 [[Before Christ|BC]] by King [[Menes]].
-{{Hiero | ''tAwy'' ('Two Lands') | <hiero>N16:N16</hiero> | align=left | era=default}}A unified kingdom was founded circa 3150 {{subst:#ifexist:Before Christ|[[Before Christ|BC]]|[[Wikipedia:Before Christ|BC]]}} by King {{subst:#ifexist:Menes|[[Menes|]]|[[Wikipedia:Menes|]]}}, giving rise to a {{subst:#ifexist:List of Egyptian dynasties|[[List of Egyptian dynasties|series of dynasties]]|[[Wikipedia:List of Egyptian dynasties|series of dynasties]]}} that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptians|[[Egyptians|]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptians|]]}} subsequently referred to their unified country as ''tawy'', meaning "two lands",  and later ''kemet'' ({{subst:#ifexist:Coptic language|[[Coptic language|Coptic]]|[[Wikipedia:Coptic language|Coptic]]}}: ''kīmi''), the "black land", a reference to the fertile black soil deposited by the Nile river. {{subst:#ifexist:Culture of Egypt|[[Culture of Egypt|Egyptian culture]]|[[Wikipedia:Culture of Egypt|Egyptian culture]]}} flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its {{subst:#ifexist:Ancient Egyptian religion|[[Ancient Egyptian religion|religion]]|[[Wikipedia:Ancient Egyptian religion|religion]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Art of Ancient Egypt|[[Art of Ancient Egypt|arts]]|[[Wikipedia:Art of Ancient Egypt|arts]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian language|[[Egyptian language|language]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian language|language]]}} and customs. The {{subst:#ifexist:Protodynastic Period of Egypt|[[Protodynastic Period of Egypt|first two ruling dynasties]]|[[Wikipedia:Protodynastic Period of Egypt|first two ruling dynasties]]}} of a unified Egypt set the stage for the {{subst:#ifexist:Old Kingdom|[[Old Kingdom|]]|[[Wikipedia:Old Kingdom|]]}} period, c.2700−2200 BC., famous for its many {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian pyramids|[[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]]}}, most notably the {{subst:#ifexist:Third dynasty of Egypt|[[Third dynasty of Egypt|Third Dynasty]]|[[Wikipedia:Third dynasty of Egypt|Third Dynasty]]}} {{subst:#ifexist:pyramid of Djoser|[[pyramid of Djoser|]]|[[Wikipedia:pyramid of Djoser|]]}} and the {{subst:#ifexist:Fourth dynasty of Egypt|[[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]]|[[Wikipedia:Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]]}} {{subst:#ifexist:Giza pyramid complex|[[Giza pyramid complex|Giza Pyramids]]|[[Wikipedia:Giza pyramid complex|Giza Pyramids]]}}.
-[[Image:SphinxGiza.jpg|thumb|The {{subst:#ifexist:Great Sphinx of Giza|[[Great Sphinx of Giza|Great Sphinx]]|[[Wikipedia:Great Sphinx of Giza|Great Sphinx]]}} and the {{subst:#ifexist:Giza pyramid complex|[[Giza pyramid complex|Pyramids of Giza]]|[[Wikipedia:Giza pyramid complex|Pyramids of Giza]]}}, built during the {{subst:#ifexist:Old Kingdom|[[Old Kingdom|]]|[[Wikipedia:Old Kingdom|]]}}, are modern national icons that are  at the heart of Egypt's thriving tourism industry.]]
+[[Image:SphinxGiza.jpg|thumb|The [[Giza pyramid complex|Pyramids of Giza]], built during the [[Old Kingdom]], are modern national icons that are  at the heart of Egypt's thriving tourism industry.]]
+The [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] ''c''. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh [[Amenemhat III]].
-The {{subst:#ifexist:First Intermediate Period of Egypt|[[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First Intermediate Period]]|[[Wikipedia:First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First Intermediate Period]]}} ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years. Stronger Nile floods and stabilization of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the {{subst:#ifexist:Middle Kingdom of Egypt|[[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]]|[[Wikipedia:Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]]}} ''c''. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh {{subst:#ifexist:Amenemhat III|[[Amenemhat III|]]|[[Wikipedia:Amenemhat III|]]}}. A {{subst:#ifexist:Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|[[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|second period of disunity]]|[[Wikipedia:Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|second period of disunity]]}} heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the {{subst:#ifexist:Semitic|[[Semitic|]]|[[Wikipedia:Semitic|]]}} {{subst:#ifexist:Hyksos|[[Hyksos|]]|[[Wikipedia:Hyksos|]]}}. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC and founded a new capital at {{subst:#ifexist:Avaris|[[Avaris|]]|[[Wikipedia:Avaris|]]}}. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by {{subst:#ifexist:Ahmose I|[[Ahmose I|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ahmose I|]]}}, who founded the {{subst:#ifexist:Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|[[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth Dynasty]]|[[Wikipedia:Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth Dynasty]]}} and relocated the capital from {{subst:#ifexist:Memphis, Egypt|[[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]|[[Wikipedia:Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]}} to {{subst:#ifexist:Thebes, Egypt|[[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]|[[Wikipedia:Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]}}.
+The [[New Kingdom]]ns, but native Egyptians drove them out and regained control of their country.
-The {{subst:#ifexist:New Kingdom|[[New Kingdom|]]|[[Wikipedia:New Kingdom|]]}} (c.1550−1070 BC) began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as {{subst:#ifexist:Jebel Barkal|[[Jebel Barkal|]]|[[Wikipedia:Jebel Barkal|]]}} in {{subst:#ifexist:Nubia|[[Nubia|]]|[[Wikipedia:Nubia|]]}}, and included parts of the {{subst:#ifexist:Levant|[[Levant|]]|[[Wikipedia:Levant|]]}} in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well-known {{subst:#ifexist:Pharaoh|[[Pharaoh|]]|[[Wikipedia:Pharaoh|]]}}s, including {{subst:#ifexist:Hatshepsut|[[Hatshepsut|]]|[[Wikipedia:Hatshepsut|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Thutmose III|[[Thutmose III|]]|[[Wikipedia:Thutmose III|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Akhenaten|[[Akhenaten|]]|[[Wikipedia:Akhenaten|]]}} and his wife {{subst:#ifexist:Nefertiti|[[Nefertiti|]]|[[Wikipedia:Nefertiti|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Tutankhamun|[[Tutankhamun|]]|[[Wikipedia:Tutankhamun|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Ramesses II|[[Ramesses II|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ramesses II|]]}}. The first known self-conscious expression of {{subst:#ifexist:monotheism|[[monotheism|]]|[[Wikipedia:monotheism|]]}} came during this period in the form of {{subst:#ifexist:Atenism|[[Atenism|]]|[[Wikipedia:Atenism|]]}}. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded by {{subst:#ifexist:Ancient Libya|[[Ancient Libya|Libyans]]|[[Wikipedia:Ancient Libya|Libyans]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Kush|[[Kush|Nubians]]|[[Wikipedia:Kush|Nubians]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Assyria|[[Assyria|]]|[[Wikipedia:Assyria|]]}}ns, but native Egyptians drove them out and regained control of their country.
-[[Image:Cairo, Old Cairo, Hanging Church, Egypt, Oct 2004.jpg|thumb|left|upright|First built in the third or fourth century AD, the Hanging Church is Cairo's most famous {{subst:#ifexist:Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|[[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic]]|[[Wikipedia:Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic]]}} church.]]
+[[Image:Cairo, Old Cairo, Hanging Church, Egypt, Oct 2004.jpg|thumb|left|upright|First built in the third or fourth century AD, the Hanging Church is Cairo's most famous [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic]] church.]]
-The {{subst:#ifexist:Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt|[[Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt|Thirtieth Dynasty]]|[[Wikipedia:Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt|Thirtieth Dynasty]]}} was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It {{subst:#ifexist:History of Egypt under Achaemenid Persian domination|[[History of Egypt under Achaemenid Persian domination|fell to the Persians]]|[[Wikipedia:History of Egypt under Achaemenid Persian domination|fell to the Persians]]}} in 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, King {{subst:#ifexist:Nectanebo II|[[Nectanebo II|]]|[[Wikipedia:Nectanebo II|]]}}, was defeated in battle. Later, Egypt fell to the {{subst:#ifexist:Ptolemaic Egypt|[[Ptolemaic Egypt|Greeks]]|[[Wikipedia:Ptolemaic Egypt|Greeks]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Aegyptus (Roman province)|[[Aegyptus (Roman province)|Romans]]|[[Wikipedia:Aegyptus (Roman province)|Romans]]}}, beginning over two thousand years of foreign rule.
+The [[History of Egypt under Achaemenid Persian domination|fell to the Persians]] in 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, King [[Nectanebo II]], beginning over two thousand years of foreign rule.
-Before Egypt became part of the {{subst:#ifexist:Aegyptus (Roman province)#Byzantine Egypt|[[Aegyptus (Roman province)#Byzantine Egypt|Byzantine]]|[[Wikipedia:Aegyptus (Roman province)#Byzantine Egypt|Byzantine]]}} realm, Christianity had been brought by {{subst:#ifexist:Saint Mark the Evangelist|[[Saint Mark the Evangelist|]]|[[Wikipedia:Saint Mark the Evangelist|]]}} in the AD first century. {{subst:#ifexist:Diocletian|[[Diocletian|]]|[[Wikipedia:Diocletian|]]}}'s reign marked the transition from the {{subst:#ifexist:Roman Empire|[[Roman Empire|Roman]]|[[Wikipedia:Roman Empire|Roman]]}} to the {{subst:#ifexist:Byzantine Empire|[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]|[[Wikipedia:Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]}} era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The {{subst:#ifexist:New Testament|[[New Testament|]]|[[Wikipedia:New Testament|]]}} had by then been translated into Egyptian.  After the {{subst:#ifexist:Council of Chalcedon|[[Council of Chalcedon|]]|[[Wikipedia:Council of Chalcedon|]]}} in AD 451, a distinct {{subst:#ifexist:Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|[[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Egyptian Coptic Church]]|[[Wikipedia:Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Egyptian Coptic Church]]}} was firmly established.<ref>Kamil, Jill. ''Coptic Egypt: History and Guide''. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39</ref>
+Before Egypt became part of the [[Aegyptus (Roman province)#Byzantine Egypt|Byzantine]] realm, Christianity had been brought by [[Saint Mark the Evangelist]] was firmly established.<ref>Kamil, Jill. ''Coptic Egypt: History and Guide''. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39</ref>
+The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|invaded]] by the [[Muslim]] in 1517.
-The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief {{subst:#ifexist:Aegyptus (Roman province)#Persian and Arab conquests|[[Aegyptus (Roman province)#Persian and Arab conquests|Persian]]|[[Wikipedia:Aegyptus (Roman province)#Persian and Arab conquests|Persian]]}} invasion early in the seventh century, until in AD 639, Egypt was {{subst:#ifexist:Muslim conquest of Egypt|[[Muslim conquest of Egypt|invaded]]|[[Wikipedia:Muslim conquest of Egypt|invaded]]}} by the {{subst:#ifexist:Muslim|[[Muslim|]]|[[Wikipedia:Muslim|]]}} {{subst:#ifexist:Arabs|[[Arabs|]]|[[Wikipedia:Arabs|]]}}. The form of Islam the Arabs brought to Egypt was {{subst:#ifexist:Sunni Islam|[[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]|[[Wikipedia:Sunni Islam|Sunni]]}}.  Early in this period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices that had survived through Coptic Christianity, giving rise to various {{subst:#ifexist:Sufism|[[Sufism|Sufi]]|[[Wikipedia:Sufism|Sufi]]}} orders that have flourished to this day.<ref>El-Daly, Okasha. ''Egyptology: The Missing Millennium''. London: UCL Press, 2005. p. 140</ref> Muslim rulers nominated by the {{subst:#ifexist:Islamic Caliphate|[[Islamic Caliphate|]]|[[Wikipedia:Islamic Caliphate|]]}} {{subst:#ifexist:History of Arab Egypt|[[History of Arab Egypt|remained in control of Egypt]]|[[Wikipedia:History of Arab Egypt|remained in control of Egypt]]}} for the next six centuries, including a period for which it was the seat of the Caliphate under the {{subst:#ifexist:Fatimid|[[Fatimid|]]|[[Wikipedia:Fatimid|]]}}s. With the end of the {{subst:#ifexist:Ayyubid dynasty|[[Ayyubid dynasty|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ayyubid dynasty|]]}}, the {{subst:#ifexist:Mamluk|[[Mamluk|]]|[[Wikipedia:Mamluk|]]}}s, a {{subst:#ifexist:Turkish people|[[Turkish people|Turco]]|[[Wikipedia:Turkish people|Turco]]}}-{{subst:#ifexist:Circassians|[[Circassians|Circassian]]|[[Wikipedia:Circassians|Circassian]]}} military caste, took control about AD 1250.  They continued to govern even after the {{subst:#ifexist:History of Ottoman Egypt|[[History of Ottoman Egypt|conquest of Egypt]]|[[Wikipedia:History of Ottoman Egypt|conquest of Egypt]]}} by the {{subst:#ifexist:Ottoman Turks|[[Ottoman Turks|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ottoman Turks|]]}} in 1517.
-[[Image:Citadel2.jpg|thumb|Mosque of {{subst:#ifexist:Muhammad Ali of Egypt|[[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Mohamed Ali]]|[[Wikipedia:Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Mohamed Ali]]}} built in the early nineteenth century within the {{subst:#ifexist:Cairo Citadel|[[Cairo Citadel|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cairo Citadel|]]}}.]]
+[[Image:Citadel2.jpg|thumb|Mosque of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Mohamed Ali]] built in the early nineteenth century within the [[Cairo Citadel]].]]
+The brief [[French Invasion of Egypt]].
-The brief {{subst:#ifexist:French Invasion of Egypt|[[French Invasion of Egypt|]]|[[Wikipedia:French Invasion of Egypt|]]}} led by {{subst:#ifexist:Napoleon I of France|[[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]|[[Wikipedia:Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]}} in 1798 had a great social impact on the country and its culture. Native Egyptians became exposed to the principles of the {{subst:#ifexist:French Revolution|[[French Revolution|]]|[[Wikipedia:French Revolution|]]}} and had a chance to exercise {{subst:#ifexist:self-governance|[[self-governance|]]|[[Wikipedia:self-governance|]]}}.<ref>Vatikiotis, P.J. ''The History of Modern Egypt''. 4th edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1992, p. 39</ref> A series of civil wars took place between the Ottoman Turks, the Mamluks, and Albanian mercenaries following the evacuation of French troops, resulting in the Albanian {{subst:#ifexist:Muhammad Ali of Egypt|[[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]]|[[Wikipedia:Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]]}} (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) {{subst:#ifexist:Muhammad Ali's seizure of power|[[Muhammad Ali's seizure of power|taking control of Egypt]]|[[Wikipedia:Muhammad Ali's seizure of power|taking control of Egypt]]}}.  He was appointed as the Ottoman {{subst:#ifexist:viceroy|[[viceroy|]]|[[Wikipedia:viceroy|]]}} in 1805. He led a modernization campaign of public works, including irrigation projects, agricultural reforms and increased industrialization, which were then taken up and further expanded by his grandson and successor {{subst:#ifexist:Isma'il Pasha|[[Isma'il Pasha|]]|[[Wikipedia:Isma'il Pasha|]]}}.
+Following the completion of the [[Suez Canal]].
-Following the completion of the {{subst:#ifexist:Suez Canal|[[Suez Canal|]]|[[Wikipedia:Suez Canal|]]}} by Ismail in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation and trading hub. In 1866, the Assembly of Delegates was founded to serve as an advisory body for the government. Its members were elected from across Egypt.  They came to have an important influence on governmental affairs.<ref>Jankowski, James. ''Egypt: A Short History.'' Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2000. p. 83</ref> The country fell heavily into debt to European powers. Ostensibly to protect its investments, the {{subst:#ifexist:United Kingdom|[[United Kingdom|]]|[[Wikipedia:United Kingdom|]]}} {{subst:#ifexist:Scramble for Africa|[[Scramble for Africa|seized control]]|[[Wikipedia:Scramble for Africa|seized control]]}} of Egypt's government in 1882.  Egypt gave nominal allegiance to the {{subst:#ifexist:Ottoman Empire|[[Ottoman Empire|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ottoman Empire|]]}} until 1914. As a result of the declaration of {{subst:#ifexist:World War I|[[World War I|war with the Ottoman Empire]]|[[Wikipedia:World War I|war with the Ottoman Empire]]}}, Britain declared a {{subst:#ifexist:protectorate|[[protectorate|]]|[[Wikipedia:protectorate|]]}} over Egypt and deposed the {{subst:#ifexist:Khedive|[[Khedive|]]|[[Wikipedia:Khedive|]]}} {{subst:#ifexist:Abbas II|[[Abbas II|]]|[[Wikipedia:Abbas II|]]}}, replacing him with his uncle, {{subst:#ifexist:Husayn Kamil|[[Husayn Kamil|]]|[[Wikipedia:Husayn Kamil|]]}}, who was appointed {{subst:#ifexist:Sultan of Egypt|[[Sultan of Egypt|Sultan]]|[[Wikipedia:Sultan of Egypt|Sultan]]}}.
-[[Image:1919revolution.jpg|thumb|left|Public riot during the {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian revolution of 1919|[[Egyptian revolution of 1919|1919 Revolution]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian revolution of 1919|1919 Revolution]]}} sparked by the British exile of nationalist leader {{subst:#ifexist:Saad Zaghlul|[[Saad Zaghlul|]]|[[Wikipedia:Saad Zaghlul|]]}}.]]Between 1882 and 1906, a local nationalist movement for independence was taking shape. The {{subst:#ifexist:Dinshaway Incident|[[Dinshaway Incident|]]|[[Wikipedia:Dinshaway Incident|]]}} prompted Egyptian opposition to take a stronger stand against British occupation.  The first political parties were founded. After the First World War, {{subst:#ifexist:Saad Zaghlul|[[Saad Zaghlul|]]|[[Wikipedia:Saad Zaghlul|]]}} and the {{subst:#ifexist:Wafd Party|[[Wafd Party|]]|[[Wikipedia:Wafd Party|]]}} led the Egyptian nationalist movement, gaining a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to {{subst:#ifexist:Malta|[[Malta|]]|[[Wikipedia:Malta|]]}} on [[March 8]], [[1919]], the country arose in its {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian revolution of 1919|[[Egyptian revolution of 1919|first modern revolution]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian revolution of 1919|first modern revolution]]}}. Constant revolting by the Egyptian people throughout the country led Great Britain to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on [[February 22]], [[1922]].<ref>Jankowski, ''op cit''., p. 112</ref>
+[[Image:1919revolution.jpg|thumb|left|Public riot during the [[Egyptian revolution of 1919|1919 Revolution]] sparked by the British exile of nationalist leader [[Saad Zaghlul]]. Constant revolting by the Egyptian people throughout the country led Great Britain to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on [[February 22]], [[1922]].<ref>Jankowski, ''op cit''., p. 112</ref>
-The new Egyptian government drafted and implemented a new {{subst:#ifexist:1923 Constitution of Egypt|[[1923 Constitution of Egypt|constitution]]|[[Wikipedia:1923 Constitution of Egypt|constitution]]}} in 1923 based on a {{subst:#ifexist:Parliamentary system|[[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]]|[[Wikipedia:Parliamentary system|parliamentary]]}} representative system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly-elected as {{subst:#ifexist:Prime Minister of Egypt|[[Prime Minister of Egypt|]]|[[Wikipedia:Prime Minister of Egypt|]]}} in 1924.  In 1936 the {{subst:#ifexist:Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936|[[Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936|Anglo-Egyptian Treaty]]|[[Wikipedia:Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936|Anglo-Egyptian Treaty]]}} was concluded.
+The new Egyptian government drafted and implemented a new [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] representative system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly-elected as [[Prime Minister of Egypt]] was concluded.
-Continued instability in the government due to remaining British control and increasing political involvement by the king led to the ouster of the monarchy and the dissolution of the parliament in a military ''{{subst:#ifexist:coup d'état|[[coup d'état|]]|[[Wikipedia:coup d'état|]]}}'' known as the {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian Revolution of 1952|[[Egyptian Revolution of 1952|1952 Revolution]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian Revolution of 1952|1952 Revolution]]}}. The officers, known as the {{subst:#ifexist:Free Officers Movement|[[Free Officers Movement|]]|[[Wikipedia:Free Officers Movement|]]}}, forced King {{subst:#ifexist:Farouk of Egypt|[[Farouk of Egypt|Farouk ]]|[[Wikipedia:Farouk of Egypt|Farouk ]]}} to abdicate in support of his son {{subst:#ifexist:Fuad II of Egypt|[[Fuad II of Egypt|Fuad]]|[[Wikipedia:Fuad II of Egypt|Fuad]]}}.
+Continued instability in the government due to remaining British control and increasing political involvement by the king led to the ouster of the monarchy and the dissolution of the parliament in a military ''[[coup d'état]].
-[[Image:View_from_Cairo_Tower_31march2007.jpg|thumb|400px| View of {{subst:#ifexist:Cairo|[[Cairo|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cairo|]]}}, the largest city in {{subst:#ifexist:Africa|[[Africa|]]|[[Wikipedia:Africa|]]}} and the {{subst:#ifexist:Middle East|[[Middle East|]]|[[Wikipedia:Middle East|]]}}. The {{subst:#ifexist:Cairo Opera House|[[Cairo Opera House|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cairo Opera House|]]}} (bottom-right) is the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.]]
+[[Image:View_from_Cairo_Tower_31march2007.jpg|thumb|400px| View of [[Cairo]] (bottom-right) is the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.]]
+On [[18 June]] [[1953]], the Egyptian Republic was declared,  with General [[Muhammad Naguib]].
-On [[18 June]] [[1953]], the Egyptian Republic was declared,  with General {{subst:#ifexist:Muhammad Naguib|[[Muhammad Naguib|]]|[[Wikipedia:Muhammad Naguib|]]}} as the first President of the Republic. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by {{subst:#ifexist:Gamal Abdel Nasser|[[Gamal Abdel Nasser|]]|[[Wikipedia:Gamal Abdel Nasser|]]}} &ndash; the real architect of the 1952 movement &ndash; and was later put under {{subst:#ifexist:house arrest|[[house arrest|]]|[[Wikipedia:house arrest|]]}}. Nasser assumed {{subst:#ifexist:Political power|[[Political power|power]]|[[Wikipedia:Political power|power]]}} as President and declared the full independence of Egypt from the {{subst:#ifexist:United Kingdom|[[United Kingdom|]]|[[Wikipedia:United Kingdom|]]}} on [[June 18]] [[1956]]. His {{subst:#ifexist:nationalization|[[nationalization|]]|[[Wikipedia:nationalization|]]}} of the {{subst:#ifexist:Suez Canal|[[Suez Canal|]]|[[Wikipedia:Suez Canal|]]}} on [[July 26]] [[1956]] prompted the 1956 {{subst:#ifexist:Suez Crisis|[[Suez Crisis|]]|[[Wikipedia:Suez Crisis|]]}}.
+Three years after the 1967 [[Six Day War]] economic reform policy, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike.
-Three years after the 1967 {{subst:#ifexist:Six Day War|[[Six Day War|]]|[[Wikipedia:Six Day War|]]}}, during which {{subst:#ifexist:Israel|[[Israel|]]|[[Wikipedia:Israel|]]}} had invaded and occupied {{subst:#ifexist:Sinai|[[Sinai|]]|[[Wikipedia:Sinai|]]}}, Nasser died and was succeeded by {{subst:#ifexist:Anwar Sadat|[[Anwar Sadat|]]|[[Wikipedia:Anwar Sadat|]]}}. Sadat switched Egypt's {{subst:#ifexist:Cold War|[[Cold War|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cold War|]]}} allegiance from the {{subst:#ifexist:Soviet Union|[[Soviet Union|]]|[[Wikipedia:Soviet Union|]]}} to the {{subst:#ifexist:United States|[[United States|]]|[[Wikipedia:United States|]]}}, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972.  He launched the {{subst:#ifexist:Infitah|[[Infitah|]]|[[Wikipedia:Infitah|]]}} economic reform policy, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike.
-In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the {{subst:#ifexist:Yom Kippur War|[[Yom Kippur War|October War]]|[[Wikipedia:Yom Kippur War|October War]]}}, a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights.  It was an attempt to liberate the territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. Both the {{subst:#ifexist:US|[[US|]]|[[Wikipedia:US|]]}} and the {{subst:#ifexist:USSR|[[USSR|]]|[[Wikipedia:USSR|]]}} intervened and a cease-fire was reached. Despite not being a complete military success, most historians agree that the {{subst:#ifexist:Yom Kippur war|[[Yom Kippur war|October War]]|[[Wikipedia:Yom Kippur war|October War]]}} presented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to pursue peace with Israel.
+In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the [[Yom Kippur War|October War]], a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights.  It was an attempt to liberate the territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. Both the [[US]] presented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to pursue peace with Israel.
-In 1977, Sadat made a historic visit to Israel, which led to the 1979 {{subst:#ifexist:Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty|[[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty|peace treaty]]|[[Wikipedia:Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty|peace treaty]]}} in exchange for the complete Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by the vast majority of Egyptians.<ref>Vatikiotis, p. 443</ref> A fundamentalist military soldier assassinated Sadat in Cairo in 1981.  He was succeeded by the incumbent {{subst:#ifexist:Hosni Mubarak|[[Hosni Mubarak|]]|[[Wikipedia:Hosni Mubarak|]]}}. In 2003, the {{subst:#ifexist:Kifaya|[[Kifaya|Egyptian Movement for Change]]|[[Wikipedia:Kifaya|Egyptian Movement for Change]]}}, popularly known as ''Kifaya'', was launched to seek a return to {{subst:#ifexist:democracy|[[democracy|]]|[[Wikipedia:democracy|]]}} and greater {{subst:#ifexist:civil liberties|[[civil liberties|]]|[[Wikipedia:civil liberties|]]}}.
+In 1977, Sadat made a historic visit to Israel, which led to the 1979 [[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty|peace treaty]] in exchange for the complete Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by the vast majority of Egyptians.<ref>Vatikiotis, p. 443</ref> A fundamentalist military soldier assassinated Sadat in Cairo in 1981.  He was succeeded by the incumbent [[Hosni Mubarak]].
 == Identity ==
-[[Image:Egypt's Awakening.jpg|thumb|left|250px|{{subst:#ifexist:Mahmoud Mokhtar|[[Mahmoud Mokhtar|]]|[[Wikipedia:Mahmoud Mokhtar|]]}}'s ''Egypt's Renaissance'' 1919-1928, {{subst:#ifexist:Cairo University|[[Cairo University|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cairo University|]]}}.]]
+[[Image:Egypt's Awakening.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Mahmoud Mokhtar]].]]
-The Egyptian Nile Valley was home to one of the {{subst:#ifexist:Ancient Egypt|[[Ancient Egypt|oldest cultures in the world]]|[[Wikipedia:Ancient Egypt|oldest cultures in the world]]}}, spanning three thousand years of continuous history. When Egypt fell under a {{subst:#ifexist:History of Egypt|[[History of Egypt|series of foreign occupations]]|[[Wikipedia:History of Egypt|series of foreign occupations]]}} after 343 BC, each left an indelible mark on the country's {{subst:#ifexist:Culture of Egypt|[[Culture of Egypt|cultural landscape]]|[[Wikipedia:Culture of Egypt|cultural landscape]]}}. {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptians|[[Egyptians|Egyptian identity]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptians|Egyptian identity]]}} evolved in the span of this long period of occupation to accommodate, in principle, two new religions, {{subst:#ifexist:Christianity|[[Christianity|]]|[[Wikipedia:Christianity|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Islam|[[Islam|]]|[[Wikipedia:Islam|]]}}; and a new language, {{subst:#ifexist:Arabic language|[[Arabic language|Arabic]]|[[Wikipedia:Arabic language|Arabic]]}}, and its spoken descendant, {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian Arabic|[[Egyptian Arabic|]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian Arabic|]]}}. The degree to which different groups in Egypt identify with these factors in articulating a sense of collective identity can vary greatly.  Identity is a source of frequent debate.
+The Egyptian Nile Valley was home to one of the [[Egyptians|Egyptian identity]] evolved in the span of this long period of occupation to accommodate, in principle, two new religions, [[Christianity]]. The degree to which different groups in Egypt identify with these factors in articulating a sense of collective identity can vary greatly.  Identity is a source of frequent debate.
-Questions of identity came to fore in the last century as Egypt sought to free itself from foreign occupation for the first time in two thousand years. Three chief ideologies came to head: ethno-territorial Egyptian nationalism and by extension {{subst:#ifexist:Pharaonism|[[Pharaonism|]]|[[Wikipedia:Pharaonism|]]}}, secular {{subst:#ifexist:Arab nationalism|[[Arab nationalism|]]|[[Wikipedia:Arab nationalism|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:pan-Arabism|[[pan-Arabism|]]|[[Wikipedia:pan-Arabism|]]}}, and {{subst:#ifexist:Islamism|[[Islamism|]]|[[Wikipedia:Islamism|]]}}. Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the nineteenth century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists of the pre- and inter-war periods. It was nearly always articulated in exclusively Egyptian terms:
+Questions of identity came to fore in the last century as Egypt sought to free itself from foreign occupation for the first time in two thousand years. Three chief ideologies came to head: ethno-territorial Egyptian nationalism and by extension [[Pharaonism]]. Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the nineteenth century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists of the pre- and inter-war periods. It was nearly always articulated in exclusively Egyptian terms:
-{{cquote|What is most significant [about Egypt in this period] is the absence of an Arab component in early Egyptian nationalism. The thrust of Egyptian political, economic, and cultural development throughout the nineteenth century worked against, rather than for, an "Arab" orientation... This situation—that of divergent political trajectories for {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptians|[[Egyptians|]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptians|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Arab|[[Arab|]]|[[Wikipedia:Arab|]]}}s—if anything increased after 1900.<ref>Jankowski, James. "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism" in Rashid Khalidi, ed. ''The Origins of Arab Nationalism''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, pp. 244-45</ref>}}
+{{cquote|What is most significant [about Egypt in this period] is the absence of an Arab component in early Egyptian nationalism. The thrust of Egyptian political, economic, and cultural development throughout the nineteenth century worked against, rather than for, an "Arab" orientation... This situation—that of divergent political trajectories for [[Egyptians]]
+In 1931 following a visit to Egypt, Syrian Arab nationalist [[Sati' al-Husri]] historian H. S. Deighton was still writing:
-In 1931 following a visit to Egypt, Syrian Arab nationalist {{subst:#ifexist:Sati' al-Husri|[[Sati' al-Husri|]]|[[Wikipedia:Sati' al-Husri|]]}} remarked that "[Egyptians] did not possess an Arab nationalist sentiment; did not accept that Egypt was a part of the Arab lands, and would not acknowledge that the Egyptian people were part of the Arab nation."<ref>qtd in Dawisha, Adeed. ''Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century''. Princeton University Press. 2003, p. 99</ref> The later 1930s would become a formative period for Arab nationalism in Egypt, in large part due to efforts by Syrian/Palestinian/Lebanese intellectuals.<ref>Jankowski, "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism," p. 246</ref> A year after the establishment of the {{subst:#ifexist:Arab League|[[Arab League|League of Arab States]]|[[Wikipedia:Arab League|League of Arab States]]}} in 1945, to be headquartered in Cairo, {{subst:#ifexist:University of Oxford|[[University of Oxford|Oxford University]]|[[Wikipedia:University of Oxford|Oxford University]]}} historian H. S. Deighton was still writing:
 {{cquote|The Egyptians are not Arabs, and both they and the Arabs are aware of this fact. They are Arabic-speaking, and they are Muslim —indeed religion plays a greater part in their lives than it does in those either of the Syrians or the Iraqi. But the Egyptian, during the first thirty years of the [twentieth] century, was not aware of any particular bond with the Arab East... Egypt sees in the Arab cause a worthy object of real and active sympathy and, at the same time, a great and proper opportunity for the exercise of leadership, as well as for the enjoyment of its fruits. But she is still Egyptian first and Arab only in consequence, and her main interests are still domestic. <ref>Deighton, H. S. "The Arab Middle East and the Modern World", International Affairs, vol. xxii, no. 4 (October 1946), p. 519.</ref>}}
-It was not until the {{subst:#ifexist:Gamal Abdel Nasser|[[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]]|[[Wikipedia:Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]]}} era more than a decade later that Arab nationalism became a state policy and a means with which to define Egypt's position in the Middle East and the world.<ref>"Before Nasser, Egypt, which had been ruled by Britain since 1882, was more in favor of territorial, Egyptian nationalism and distant from the pan-Arab ideology. Egyptians generally did not identify themselves as Arabs, and it is revealing that when the Egyptian nationalist leader [Saad Zaghlul] met the Arab delegates at Versailles in 1918, he insisted that their struggles for statehood were not connected, claiming that the problem of Egypt was an Egyptian problem and not an Arab one." Makropoulou, Ifigenia. [http://www.ekem.gr/archives/2007/01/pan_arabism_wha.html Pan - Arabism: What Destroyed the Ideology of Arab Nationalism?]. Hellenic Center for European Studies. January 15, 2007.</ref> usually articulated vis-à-vis {{subst:#ifexist:Zionism|[[Zionism|]]|[[Wikipedia:Zionism|]]}} in the neighboring Jewish state.
+It was not until the [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] era more than a decade later that Arab nationalism became a state policy and a means with which to define Egypt's position in the Middle East and the world.<ref>"Before Nasser, Egypt, which had been ruled by Britain since 1882, was more in favor of territorial, Egyptian nationalism and distant from the pan-Arab ideology. Egyptians generally did not identify themselves as Arabs, and it is revealing that when the Egyptian nationalist leader [Saad Zaghlul] met the Arab delegates at Versailles in 1918, he insisted that their struggles for statehood were not connected, claiming that the problem of Egypt was an Egyptian problem and not an Arab one." Makropoulou, Ifigenia. [http://www.ekem.gr/archives/2007/01/pan_arabism_wha.html Pan - Arabism: What Destroyed the Ideology of Arab Nationalism?]. Hellenic Center for European Studies. January 15, 2007.</ref> usually articulated vis-à-vis [[Zionism]] in the neighboring Jewish state.
-For a while Egypt and {{subst:#ifexist:Syria|[[Syria|]]|[[Wikipedia:Syria|]]}} formed the United Arab Republic.  When the union was dissolved, the current official name of Egypt was adopted, the Arab Republic of Egypt. Egypt's attachment to Arabism, however, was particularly questioned after its defeat in the 1967 {{subst:#ifexist:Six-Day War|[[Six-Day War|]]|[[Wikipedia:Six-Day War|]]}}.  Thousands of Egyptians lost their lives and the country become disillusioned with Arab politics.<ref>Dawisha, p. 237</ref> Nasser's successor {{subst:#ifexist:Anwar Al Sadat|[[Anwar Al Sadat|Sadat]]|[[Wikipedia:Anwar Al Sadat|Sadat]]}}, both by policy and through his peace initiative with {{subst:#ifexist:Israel|[[Israel|]]|[[Wikipedia:Israel|]]}}, revived an uncontested Egyptian orientation, unequivocally asserting that only Egypt was his responsibility.  The terms "Arab", "Arabism" and "Arab unity", save for the new official name, became conspicuously absent.<ref>Dawisha, pp. 264-65, 267</ref> Indeed, as professor of Egyptian history P. J. Vatikiotis explains:
+For a while Egypt and [[Syria]], revived an uncontested Egyptian orientation, unequivocally asserting that only Egypt was his responsibility.  The terms "Arab", "Arabism" and "Arab unity", save for the new official name, became conspicuously absent.<ref>Dawisha, pp. 264-65, 267</ref> Indeed, as professor of Egyptian history P. J. Vatikiotis explains:
 {{cquote|...the impact of the October 1973 War (also known as the Ramadan or Yom Kippur War) found Egyptians reverting to an earlier sense of national identity, that of Egyptianism. Egypt became their foremost consideration and top priority in contrast to the earlier one, preferred by the Nasser régime, of Egypt's role and primacy in the Arab world. This kind of national 'restoration' was led by the Old Man of Egyptian Nationalism, Tawfiq el-Hakim, who in the 1920s and 1930s was associated with the Pharaonist movement.<ref>Vatikiotis, p. 499</ref>}}
@@ Line 133: / Line 133: @@
 The question of identity continues to be debated today.  Many Egyptians feel that Egyptian and Arab identities are linked and not necessarily incompatible.  Many others continue to believe that Egypt and Egyptians are simply not Arab.  They emphasize indigenous Egyptian heritage, culture and independent polity; point to the failures of Arab nationalist policies; and publicly voice  objection to the present official name of the country.  Ordinary Egyptians frequently express this sentiment.  For example, a foreign tourist said after visiting Egypt,"Although an avowedly Islamic country and now part and parcel of the Arab world, Egyptians are very proud of their distinctiveness and their glorious Pharaonic past dating back to 3500 BC... 'We are not Arabs, we are Egyptians,' said tour guide Shayma, who is a devout Muslim."<ref> [http://www.hindustantimes.in/news/7598_1876271,000500020008.htm In Egypt, India is Big B!]. Hindustan Times. December 25, 2006.</ref>
-In late 2007, ''el-Masri el-Yom'' daily newspaper conducted an interview at a bus stop in the working-class district of {{subst:#ifexist:Imbaba|[[Imbaba|]]|[[Wikipedia:Imbaba|]]}} to ask citizens what Arab nationalism (''el-qawmeyya el-'arabeyya'') represented for them. One Egyptian Muslim youth responded, "Arab nationalism means that the Egyptian Foreign Minister in Jerusalem gets humiliated by the Palestinians, that Arab leaders dance on hearing of Sadat's death, that Egyptians get humiliated in the Arab Gulf States, and of course that Arab countries get to fight Israel until the last Egyptian soldier."<ref name="Masry">Ragab, Ahmed. El-Masry el-Yom Newspaper. [http://www.almasry-alyoum.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=61604 "What is the definition of 'Arab Nationalism': Question at a bus stop in Imbaba"]. May 21, 2007.</ref> Another felt that,"Arab countries hate Egyptians," and that unity with Israel may even be more of a possibility than Arab nationalism, because he believes that Israelis at least respect Egyptians.<ref name="Masry" />
+In late 2007, ''el-Masri el-Yom'' daily newspaper conducted an interview at a bus stop in the working-class district of [[Imbaba]] to ask citizens what Arab nationalism (''el-qawmeyya el-'arabeyya'') represented for them. One Egyptian Muslim youth responded, "Arab nationalism means that the Egyptian Foreign Minister in Jerusalem gets humiliated by the Palestinians, that Arab leaders dance on hearing of Sadat's death, that Egyptians get humiliated in the Arab Gulf States, and of course that Arab countries get to fight Israel until the last Egyptian soldier."<ref name="Masry">Ragab, Ahmed. El-Masry el-Yom Newspaper. [http://www.almasry-alyoum.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=61604 "What is the definition of 'Arab Nationalism': Question at a bus stop in Imbaba"]. May 21, 2007.</ref> Another felt that,"Arab countries hate Egyptians," and that unity with Israel may even be more of a possibility than Arab nationalism, because he believes that Israelis at least respect Egyptians.<ref name="Masry" />
-Some contemporary prominent Egyptians who oppose Arab nationalism or the idea that Egyptians are Arabs include Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities {{subst:#ifexist:Zahi Hawass|[[Zahi Hawass|]]|[[Wikipedia:Zahi Hawass|]]}}.<ref>In an [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/rams/3audio5.ram audio interview] on Egypt's links with Sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, Hawass believes that "even today Egyptians are Egyptians. It really doesn't mean that because we speak Arabic that we can be Arabs. We are...really, I feel personally that we are related even today to the Pharaohs."</ref>, popular writer {{subst:#ifexist:Osama Anwar Okasha|[[Osama Anwar Okasha|]]|[[Wikipedia:Osama Anwar Okasha|]]}}, Egyptian-born Harvard University Professor {{subst:#ifexist:Leila Ahmed|[[Leila Ahmed|]]|[[Wikipedia:Leila Ahmed|]]}}, Member of Parliament Suzie Greiss<ref>[http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/cfsi-icse/cil-cai/magazine/0107/magazine-en.asp?txt=1-2&lv=1 An Interculturalist in Cairo]. InterCultures Magazine. January 2007.</ref>, in addition to different local groups and intellectuals.<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/kimit_sagi Kimit Sagi]  {{ar icon}}</ref><ref>[http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/031106/2003110624.html We are Egyptians, not Arabs]. ArabicNews.com. 11/06.2003.</ref><ref>Ghobrial, Kamal. [http://www.al-ahaly.com/articles/05-08-31/1243-pst05.htm Egypt, the Arabs and Arabism]. ''el-Ahali''. August 31-September 6, 2005. {{ar icon}}</ref><ref> [http://saidhabeeb.com/Egypt.htm Said Habeeb's Masreyat]. {{ar icon}}</ref><ref>[http://members.lycos.co.uk/redaking/index.php Egyptian national group] {{ar icon}}</ref> This understanding is also expressed in other contexts,<ref>[http://www.arab.net/egypt/et_people.htm Egyptian people section from Arab.Net]</ref><ref>[http://www.princeton.edu/~paw/web_exclusives/more/more_letters/letters_bernardlewis.html Princeton Alumni Weekly]</ref> such as Neil DeRosa's novel ''Joseph's Seed'' in his depiction of an Egyptian character "who declares that Egyptians are not Arabs and never will be."<ref>[http://www.theatlasphere.com/columns/050117-cohen-josephsseed.php Review by Michelle Fram Cohen]. The Atlasphere. Jan. 17, 2005.</ref>
+Some contemporary prominent Egyptians who oppose Arab nationalism or the idea that Egyptians are Arabs include Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities [[Zahi Hawass]]</ref> This understanding is also expressed in other contexts,<ref>[http://www.arab.net/egypt/et_people.htm Egyptian people section from Arab.Net]</ref><ref>[http://www.princeton.edu/~paw/web_exclusives/more/more_letters/letters_bernardlewis.html Princeton Alumni Weekly]</ref> such as Neil DeRosa's novel ''Joseph's Seed'' in his depiction of an Egyptian character "who declares that Egyptians are not Arabs and never will be."<ref>[http://www.theatlasphere.com/columns/050117-cohen-josephsseed.php Review by Michelle Fram Cohen]. The Atlasphere. Jan. 17, 2005.</ref>
 Egyptian critics of Arab nationalism contend that it has worked to erode and/or relegate native Egyptian identity by superimposing only one aspect of Egypt's culture. These views and sources for collective identification in the Egyptian state are captured in the words of a linguistic anthropologist who conducted fieldwork in Cairo:
@@ Line 144: / Line 144: @@
 ===National===
+Egypt has been a republic since [[18 June]] [[1953]]. President [[Heads of government of Egypt|Prime Minister]] Dr. [[Ahmed Nazif]] from his office.
-Egypt has been a republic since [[18 June]] [[1953]]. President {{subst:#ifexist:Hosni Mubarak|[[Hosni Mubarak|Mohamed Hosni Mubarak]]|[[Wikipedia:Hosni Mubarak|Mohamed Hosni Mubarak]]}} has been the {{subst:#ifexist:President of Egypt|[[President of Egypt|President of the Republic]]|[[Wikipedia:President of Egypt|President of the Republic]]}} since [[October 14]] [[1981]], following the assassination of former-President {{subst:#ifexist:Anwar Sadat|[[Anwar Sadat|Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat]]|[[Wikipedia:Anwar Sadat|Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat]]}}. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office. He is the leader of the ruling {{subst:#ifexist:National Democratic Party (Egypt)|[[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]]|[[Wikipedia:National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]]}}. {{subst:#ifexist:Heads of government of Egypt|[[Heads of government of Egypt|Prime Minister]]|[[Wikipedia:Heads of government of Egypt|Prime Minister]]}} Dr. {{subst:#ifexist:Ahmed Nazif|[[Ahmed Nazif|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ahmed Nazif|]]}} was sworn in as Prime Minister on [[9 July]] [[2004]], following the resignation of Dr. {{subst:#ifexist:Atef Ebeid|[[Atef Ebeid|]]|[[Wikipedia:Atef Ebeid|]]}} from his office.
+Although power is ostensibly organized under a [[Multi-party system|multi-party]] [[semi-presidential system]].
-Although power is ostensibly organized under a {{subst:#ifexist:Multi-party system|[[Multi-party system|multi-party]]|[[Wikipedia:Multi-party system|multi-party]]}} {{subst:#ifexist:semi-presidential system|[[semi-presidential system|]]|[[Wikipedia:semi-presidential system|]]}}, whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the President and the {{subst:#ifexist:Prime Minister of Egypt|[[Prime Minister of Egypt|Prime Minister]]|[[Wikipedia:Prime Minister of Egypt|Prime Minister]]}}, in practice it rests almost solely with the President who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. Egypt also holds regular multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election, in which Mubarak won a fifth consecutive term, {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian presidential election, 2005|[[Egyptian presidential election, 2005|was held in September 2005]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian presidential election, 2005|was held in September 2005]]}}.
-In late February 2005, President Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the {{subst:#ifexist:Free Officers Movement|[[Free Officers Movement|1952 movement]]|[[Wikipedia:Free Officers Movement|1952 movement]]}}, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy."<ref>Business TodayEGYPT. [http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4565 Mubarak throws presidential race wide open]. March 2005.</ref> However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as {{subst:#ifexist:Ayman Nour|[[Ayman Nour|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ayman Nour|]]}} from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory.<ref>Lavin, Abigail. [http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/034kggwf.asp Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour and Egypt's problematic attempt at free elections]. [[March 27]], [[2006]].</ref>
+In late February 2005, President Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the [[Free Officers Movement|1952 movement]], the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy."<ref>Business TodayEGYPT. [http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4565 Mubarak throws presidential race wide open]. March 2005.</ref> However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as [[Ayman Nour]] from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory.<ref>Lavin, Abigail. [http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/034kggwf.asp Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour and Egypt's problematic attempt at free elections]. [[March 27]], [[2006]].</ref>
 Concerns were once again expressed after the 2005 presidential elections about government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging, in addition to police brutality and violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators.<ref>Murphy, Dan. [http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0526/p06s01-wome.html Egyptian vote marred by violence]. Christian Science Monitor. May 26, 2005.</ref> After the election, Egypt imprisoned Nour, and the U.S. Government stated the “conviction of Mr. Nour, the runner-up in Egypt's 2005 presidential elections, calls into question Egypt's commitment to democracy, freedom, and the rule of law.”<ref>[http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&y=2005&m=December&x=20051224115656retnuhategdirb0.6396906 United States "Deeply Troubled" by Sentencing of Egypt's Nour]. U.S. Department of State, Published December 24, 2005</ref>
-As a result, most Egyptians are skeptical about the process of {{subst:#ifexist:democratization|[[democratization|]]|[[Wikipedia:democratization|]]}} and the role of the elections. Less than 25 percent of the country's 32 million registered voters (out of a population of more than 78 million) turned out for the 2005 elections.<ref>Gomez, Edward M. [http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/gate/archive/2005/09/13/worldviews.DTL Hosni Mubarak's pretend democratic election]. San Francisco Chronicle. [[September 13]], [[2005]].</ref>  A proposed change to the constitution would limit the president to two seven-year terms in office.<ref>[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/12/egypt-to-begin-process-of-lifting.php Egypt to begin process of lifting emergency laws]. [[December 5]], [[2006]].</ref>
+As a result, most Egyptians are skeptical about the process of [[democratization]] and the role of the elections. Less than 25 percent of the country's 32 million registered voters (out of a population of more than 78 million) turned out for the 2005 elections.<ref>Gomez, Edward M. [http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/gate/archive/2005/09/13/worldviews.DTL Hosni Mubarak's pretend democratic election]. San Francisco Chronicle. [[September 13]], [[2005]].</ref>  A proposed change to the constitution would limit the president to two seven-year terms in office.<ref>[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/12/egypt-to-begin-process-of-lifting.php Egypt to begin process of lifting emergency laws]. [[December 5]], [[2006]].</ref>
-Thirty-four constitutional changes voted on by parliament on [[March 19]], [[2007]] prohibit parties from using religion as a basis for political activity; allow the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law to replace the emergency legislation in place since 1981, giving police wide powers of arrest and surveillance; give the president power to dissolve parliament; and end judicial monitoring of election. <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6472031.stm Anger over Egypt vote timetable] {{subst:#ifexist:BBC|[[BBC|]]|[[Wikipedia:BBC|]]}}</ref> As opposition members of parliament withdrew from voting on the proposed changes, it was expected that the referendum will be boycotted by a great number of Egyptians in protest of what has been considered  a breach of democratic practices. Eventually it was reported that only 27% of the registered voters went to the polling stations under heavy police presence and tight political control of the ruling National Democratic Party. It was officially announced on March 27,2007 that 75.9% of those who participated in the referendum approved of the constitutional amendments introduced by President Mubarak and was endorsed by opposition free parliament, thus allowing the introduction of laws that curbs the activity of certain opposition elements particularly Islamists.
+Thirty-four constitutional changes voted on by parliament on [[March 19]], [[2007]] prohibit parties from using religion as a basis for political activity; allow the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law to replace the emergency legislation in place since 1981, giving police wide powers of arrest and surveillance; give the president power to dissolve parliament; and end judicial monitoring of election. <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6472031.stm Anger over Egypt vote timetable] [[BBC]]</ref> As opposition members of parliament withdrew from voting on the proposed changes, it was expected that the referendum will be boycotted by a great number of Egyptians in protest of what has been considered  a breach of democratic practices. Eventually it was reported that only 27% of the registered voters went to the polling stations under heavy police presence and tight political control of the ruling National Democratic Party. It was officially announced on March 27,2007 that 75.9% of those who participated in the referendum approved of the constitutional amendments introduced by President Mubarak and was endorsed by opposition free parliament, thus allowing the introduction of laws that curbs the activity of certain opposition elements particularly Islamists.
 ===Human rights===
 {{main|Human rights in Egypt}}
-[[Image:Kefaya demo.jpg|thumb|Members of the {{subst:#ifexist:Kifaya|[[Kifaya|]]|[[Wikipedia:Kifaya|]]}} democracy movement protesting a fifth term for President {{subst:#ifexist:Hosni Mubarak|[[Hosni Mubarak|]]|[[Wikipedia:Hosni Mubarak|]]}}. See also [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WbEM6soTHOA video].]]
+[[Image:Kefaya demo.jpg|thumb|Members of the [[Kifaya]]. See also [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WbEM6soTHOA video].]]
-Several local and international human rights organizations, including {{subst:#ifexist:Amnesty International|[[Amnesty International|]]|[[Wikipedia:Amnesty International|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Human Rights Watch|[[Human Rights Watch|]]|[[Wikipedia:Human Rights Watch|]]}}, have for many years criticized Egypt's human rights record as poor. In 2005, President {{subst:#ifexist:Hosni Mubarak|[[Hosni Mubarak|]]|[[Wikipedia:Hosni Mubarak|]]}} faced unprecedented public criticism when he clamped down on {{subst:#ifexist:Kifaya|[[Kifaya|democracy activists]]|[[Wikipedia:Kifaya|democracy activists]]}} challenging his rule. Some of the most serious human rights violations according to HRW's 2006 report on Egypt are routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.<ref name="HRW">Human Rights Watch. [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt]. 2005</ref>
+Several local and international human rights organizations, including [[Amnesty International]] challenging his rule. Some of the most serious human rights violations according to HRW's 2006 report on Egypt are routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.<ref name="HRW">Human Rights Watch. [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt]. 2005</ref>
-Discriminatory personal status laws governing marriage, divorce, custody and inheritance which put women at a disadvantage have also been cited. Laws concerning {{subst:#ifexist:Christian|[[Christian|]]|[[Wikipedia:Christian|]]}}s which place restrictions on church building and open worship have been recently eased, but major constructions still require governmental approval and persecution of {{subst:#ifexist:Christianity|[[Christianity|]]|[[Wikipedia:Christianity|]]}} by underground radical groups remains a problem.<ref>[http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=19813&sec=36&cont=3 Church Building Regulations Eased]</ref> In addition, intolerance of Baha'is and unorthodox Muslim sects remains a problem.<ref name="HRW" />
+Discriminatory personal status laws governing marriage, divorce, custody and inheritance which put women at a disadvantage have also been cited. Laws concerning [[Christian]] by underground radical groups remains a problem.<ref>[http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=19813&sec=36&cont=3 Church Building Regulations Eased]</ref> In addition, intolerance of Baha'is and unorthodox Muslim sects remains a problem.<ref name="HRW" />
-In 2005, the {{subst:#ifexist:Freedom House|[[Freedom House|]]|[[Wikipedia:Freedom House|]]}} rated {{subst:#ifexist:political rights|[[political rights|]]|[[Wikipedia:political rights|]]}} in Egypt as "6" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating), {{subst:#ifexist:civil liberties|[[civil liberties|]]|[[Wikipedia:civil liberties|]]}} as "5" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/pdf/Charts2006.pdf|title=Freedom in the World 2006|publisher={{subst:#ifexist:Freedom House|[[Freedom House|]]|[[Wikipedia:Freedom House|]]}}|date={{subst:#ifexist:2005-12-16|[[2005-12-16|]]|[[Wikipedia:2005-12-16|]]}}|accessdate=2006-07-27|format=PDF}}<br/>See also {{subst:#ifexist:Freedom in the World 2006|[[Freedom in the World 2006|]]|[[Wikipedia:Freedom in the World 2006|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:List of indices of freedom|[[List of indices of freedom|]]|[[Wikipedia:List of indices of freedom|]]}}</ref> It however noted that "Egypt witnessed its most transparent and competitive presidential and legislative elections in more than half a century and an increasingly unbridled public debate on the country's political future in 2005."<ref>[http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6956 Freedom House. Freedom in the World - Egypt. 2006]</ref>
+In 2005, the [[Freedom House]]</ref> It however noted that "Egypt witnessed its most transparent and competitive presidential and legislative elections in more than half a century and an increasingly unbridled public debate on the country's political future in 2005."<ref>[http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6956 Freedom House. Freedom in the World - Egypt. 2006]</ref>
+In 2007, human rights group [[Amnesty International]]. Accessed 2007-4-13.</ref>
-In 2007, human rights group {{subst:#ifexist:Amnesty International|[[Amnesty International|]]|[[Wikipedia:Amnesty International|]]}} released a report criticizing Egypt for {{subst:#ifexist:torture|[[torture|]]|[[Wikipedia:torture|]]}} and illegal detention. The report alleges that Egypt has become an international center for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the {{subst:#ifexist:War on Terror|[[War on Terror|]]|[[Wikipedia:War on Terror|]]}}. The report calls on Egypt to bring its anti-terrorism laws into accordance with international human rights statutes and on other nations to stop sending their detainees to Egypt.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6544149.stm Egypt torture centre, report says]. {{subst:#ifexist:bbc.co.uk|[[bbc.co.uk|]]|[[Wikipedia:bbc.co.uk|]]}}. Written 2007-{{subst:#ifexist:4-11|[[4-11|]]|[[Wikipedia:4-11|]]}}. Accessed 2007-4-11.</ref> Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report, claiming that it was inaccurate and unfair, as well as causing deep offense to the Egyptian government.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6551401.stm Egypt rejects torture criticism]. {{subst:#ifexist:bbc.co.uk|[[bbc.co.uk|]]|[[Wikipedia:bbc.co.uk|]]}}. Written 2007-{{subst:#ifexist:4-13|[[4-13|]]|[[Wikipedia:4-13|]]}}. Accessed 2007-4-13.</ref>
-The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR) is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of human rights in Egypt.<ref>[http://www.eohr.org Egyptian Organization for Human Rights]</ref> In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights, headquartered in Cairo and headed by former UN Secretary-General {{subst:#ifexist:Boutros Boutros-Ghali|[[Boutros Boutros-Ghali|]]|[[Wikipedia:Boutros Boutros-Ghali|]]}} who directly reports to the president.<ref>[http://www.nchr.org.eg/En/home.asp Official page of the Egyptian National Council for Human Rights].</ref> The council has come under heavy criticism by local NGO activists, who contend it undermines human rights work in Egypt by serving as a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its violations<ref>[http://www.eohr.org/press/2003/6-3.HTM Egyptian National Council for Human Rights Against Human Rights NGOs]. EOHR. [[June 3]], [[2003]].</ref> and to provide legitimacy to repressive laws such as the recently renewed Emergency Law.<ref>Qenawy, Ahmed. [http://www.hrinfo.net/en/discussion/2004/ehrc.shtml The Egyptian Human Rights Council: The Apple Falls Close to the Tree]. ANHRI. 2004</ref> Egypt has recently announced that it is in the process of abolishing the Emergency Law.<ref>[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/12/egypt-to-begin-process-of-lifting.php Egypt to begin process of lifting emergency laws]. [[December 5]], [[2006]].</ref> However, in March 2007 President Mubarak approved several constitutional amendments to include "an anti-terrorism clause that appears to enshrine sweeping police powers of arrest and surveillance", suggesting that the Emergency Law is here to stay for the long haul.<ref>[http://za.today.reuters.com/news/NewsArticle.aspx?type=topNews&storyID=2007-03-20T070538Z_01_BAN025517_RTRIDST_0_OZATP-EGYPT-CONSTITUTION-20070320.XML Egypt parliament approves changes in constitution]. Reuters. March 20, 2007.</ref>
+The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR) is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of human rights in Egypt.<ref>[http://www.eohr.org Egyptian Organization for Human Rights]</ref> In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights, headquartered in Cairo and headed by former UN Secretary-General [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] who directly reports to the president.<ref>[http://www.nchr.org.eg/En/home.asp Official page of the Egyptian National Council for Human Rights].</ref> The council has come under heavy criticism by local NGO activists, who contend it undermines human rights work in Egypt by serving as a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its violations<ref>[http://www.eohr.org/press/2003/6-3.HTM Egyptian National Council for Human Rights Against Human Rights NGOs]. EOHR. [[June 3]], [[2003]].</ref> and to provide legitimacy to repressive laws such as the recently renewed Emergency Law.<ref>Qenawy, Ahmed. [http://www.hrinfo.net/en/discussion/2004/ehrc.shtml The Egyptian Human Rights Council: The Apple Falls Close to the Tree]. ANHRI. 2004</ref> Egypt has recently announced that it is in the process of abolishing the Emergency Law.<ref>[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/12/egypt-to-begin-process-of-lifting.php Egypt to begin process of lifting emergency laws]. [[December 5]], [[2006]].</ref> However, in March 2007 President Mubarak approved several constitutional amendments to include "an anti-terrorism clause that appears to enshrine sweeping police powers of arrest and surveillance", suggesting that the Emergency Law is here to stay for the long haul.<ref>[http://za.today.reuters.com/news/NewsArticle.aspx?type=topNews&storyID=2007-03-20T070538Z_01_BAN025517_RTRIDST_0_OZATP-EGYPT-CONSTITUTION-20070320.XML Egypt parliament approves changes in constitution]. Reuters. March 20, 2007.</ref>
-The high court of Egypt has outlawed all religions and belief except Islam, Christianity and Judaism. (For more information see {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian Identification Card Controversy|[[Egyptian Identification Card Controversy|]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian Identification Card Controversy|]]}}.)
+The high court of Egypt has outlawed all religions and belief except Islam, Christianity and Judaism. (For more information see [[Egyptian Identification Card Controversy]].)
 ===Foreign relations===
 {{main|Foreign relations of Egypt}}
-Egypt's foreign policy operates along moderate lines. Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give Egypt extensive political influence in {{subst:#ifexist:Africa|[[Africa|]]|[[Wikipedia:Africa|]]}} and the {{subst:#ifexist:Middle East|[[Middle East|]]|[[Wikipedia:Middle East|]]}}. {{subst:#ifexist:Cairo|[[Cairo|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cairo|]]}} has been a crossroads of regional commerce and culture for centuries, and its intellectual and {{subst:#ifexist:Islam|[[Islam|]]|[[Wikipedia:Islam|]]}}ic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.
+Egypt's foreign policy operates along moderate lines. Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give Egypt extensive political influence in [[Africa]]ic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.
-The permanent {{subst:#ifexist:Headquarters of the Arab League|[[Headquarters of the Arab League|]]|[[Wikipedia:Headquarters of the Arab League|]]}} are located in {{subst:#ifexist:Cairo|[[Cairo|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cairo|]]}} and the {{subst:#ifexist:Secretary General of the Arab League|[[Secretary General of the Arab League|]]|[[Wikipedia:Secretary General of the Arab League|]]}} has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister {{subst:#ifexist:Amr Moussa|[[Amr Moussa|]]|[[Wikipedia:Amr Moussa|]]}} is the current Secretary General. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978, as a protest to the signing by Egypt of a peace treaty with Israel, but returned in 1989.
+The permanent [[Headquarters of the Arab League]] is the current Secretary General. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978, as a protest to the signing by Egypt of a peace treaty with Israel, but returned in 1989.
-Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with {{subst:#ifexist:Israel|[[Israel|]]|[[Wikipedia:Israel|]]}}, with the signing of the {{subst:#ifexist:Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty|[[Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty|]]|[[Wikipedia:Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty|]]}} in 1979. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab states, and in the {{subst:#ifexist:Israeli-Palestinian conflict|[[Israeli-Palestinian conflict|Israeli-Palestinian dispute]]|[[Wikipedia:Israeli-Palestinian conflict|Israeli-Palestinian dispute]]}}. Most Arab states still give credence to Egypt playing that role, though its effects are often limited and recently challenged by {{subst:#ifexist:Saudi Arabia|[[Saudi Arabia|]]|[[Wikipedia:Saudi Arabia|]]}} and oil rich {{subst:#ifexist:Gulf States|[[Gulf States|]]|[[Wikipedia:Gulf States|]]}}. It is also reported that due to Egypt's indulgence in internal problems and its reluctance to play a positive role in regional matters had lost the country great influence in Africa and the neighbouring countries.
+Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with [[Israel]]. It is also reported that due to Egypt's indulgence in internal problems and its reluctance to play a positive role in regional matters had lost the country great influence in Africa and the neighbouring countries.
-Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister {{subst:#ifexist:Boutros Boutros-Ghali|[[Boutros Boutros-Ghali|]]|[[Wikipedia:Boutros Boutros-Ghali|]]}} served as Secretary General of the {{subst:#ifexist:United Nations|[[United Nations|]]|[[Wikipedia:United Nations|]]}} from 1991 to 1996.
+Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] from 1991 to 1996.
 == Governorates ==
 {{main|Governorates of Egypt|Markazes of Egypt}}
-[[Image:Egypt-region-map-cities2.gif|thumb|right|320px|Map of Egypt, showing the 26 capitals of governorates, in addition to the self-governing city of {{subst:#ifexist:Luxor|[[Luxor|]]|[[Wikipedia:Luxor|]]}}]]
+[[Image:Egypt-region-map-cities2.gif|thumb|right|320px|Map of Egypt, showing the 26 capitals of governorates, in addition to the self-governing city of [[Luxor]]]]
+Egypt is divided into twenty-six [[governorate]]es'').
-Egypt is divided into twenty-six {{subst:#ifexist:governorate|[[governorate|]]|[[Wikipedia:governorate|]]}}s (''muhafazat'', singular ''{{subst:#ifexist:muhafazah|[[muhafazah|]]|[[Wikipedia:muhafazah|]]}}''). The governorates are further divided into regions (''{{subst:#ifexist:markaz|[[markaz|]]|[[Wikipedia:markaz|]]}}es'').
 {| style="background:transparent; font-size:95%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
 |- valign="top"
@@ Line 190: / Line 190: @@
 {| class="wikitable"
 ! Governorate                                   !! Capital             !! Location</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Al Iskandariyah Governorate|[[Al Iskandariyah Governorate|Alexandria]]|[[Wikipedia:Al Iskandariyah Governorate|Alexandria]]}}    || {{subst:#ifexist:Alexandria|[[Alexandria|]]|[[Wikipedia:Alexandria|]]}}      || Northern</tr>
+| [[Al Iskandariyah Governorate|Alexandria]]    || [[Alexandria]]      || Northern</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Aswan Governorate|[[Aswan Governorate|Aswan]]|[[Wikipedia:Aswan Governorate|Aswan]]}}                   || {{subst:#ifexist:Aswan|[[Aswan|]]|[[Wikipedia:Aswan|]]}}           || Upper</tr>
+| [[Aswan Governorate|Aswan]]                   || [[Aswan]]           || Upper</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Asyut Governorate|[[Asyut Governorate|Asyut]]|[[Wikipedia:Asyut Governorate|Asyut]]}}                   || {{subst:#ifexist:Asyut|[[Asyut|]]|[[Wikipedia:Asyut|]]}}           || Upper</tr>
+| [[Asyut Governorate|Asyut]]                   || [[Asyut]]           || Upper</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Al Buhayrah Governorate|[[Al Buhayrah Governorate|Beheira]]|[[Wikipedia:Al Buhayrah Governorate|Beheira]]}}           || {{subst:#ifexist:Damanhur|[[Damanhur|]]|[[Wikipedia:Damanhur|]]}}        || Lower</tr>
+| [[Al Buhayrah Governorate|Beheira]]           || [[Damanhur]]        || Lower</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Bani Suwayf Governorate|[[Bani Suwayf Governorate|Beni Suef]]|[[Wikipedia:Bani Suwayf Governorate|Beni Suef]]}}         || {{subst:#ifexist:Beni Suef|[[Beni Suef|]]|[[Wikipedia:Beni Suef|]]}}       || Upper</tr>
+| [[Bani Suwayf Governorate|Beni Suef]]         || [[Beni Suef]]       || Upper</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Al Qahirah Governorate|[[Al Qahirah Governorate|Cairo]]|[[Wikipedia:Al Qahirah Governorate|Cairo]]}}              || {{subst:#ifexist:Cairo|[[Cairo|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cairo|]]}}           || Middle</tr>
+| [[Al Qahirah Governorate|Cairo]]              || [[Cairo]]           || Middle</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Ad Daqahliyah Governorate|[[Ad Daqahliyah Governorate|Dakahlia]]|[[Wikipedia:Ad Daqahliyah Governorate|Dakahlia]]}}        || {{subst:#ifexist:Mansura|[[Mansura|]]|[[Wikipedia:Mansura|]]}}         || Lower</tr>
+| [[Ad Daqahliyah Governorate|Dakahlia]]        || [[Mansura]]         || Lower</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Domyat Governorate|[[Domyat Governorate|Damietta]]|[[Wikipedia:Domyat Governorate|Damietta]]}}               || {{subst:#ifexist:Damietta|[[Damietta|]]|[[Wikipedia:Damietta|]]}}        || Lower</tr>
+| [[Domyat Governorate|Damietta]]               || [[Damietta]]        || Lower</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Al Fayyum Governorate|[[Al Fayyum Governorate|Faiyum]]|[[Wikipedia:Al Fayyum Governorate|Faiyum]]}}              || {{subst:#ifexist:Faiyum|[[Faiyum|]]|[[Wikipedia:Faiyum|]]}}          || Upper</tr>
+| [[Al Fayyum Governorate|Faiyum]]              || [[Faiyum]]          || Upper</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Al Gharbiyah Governorate|[[Al Gharbiyah Governorate|Gharbia]]|[[Wikipedia:Al Gharbiyah Governorate|Gharbia]]}}          || {{subst:#ifexist:Tanta|[[Tanta|]]|[[Wikipedia:Tanta|]]}}           || Lower</tr>
+| [[Al Gharbiyah Governorate|Gharbia]]          || [[Tanta]]           || Lower</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Al Jizah Governorate|[[Al Jizah Governorate|Giza]]|[[Wikipedia:Al Jizah Governorate|Giza]]}}                 || {{subst:#ifexist:Giza|[[Giza|]]|[[Wikipedia:Giza|]]}}            || Upper</tr>
+| [[Al Jizah Governorate|Giza]]                 || [[Giza]]            || Upper</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Al Isma'iliyah Governorate|[[Al Isma'iliyah Governorate|Ismailia]]|[[Wikipedia:Al Isma'iliyah Governorate|Ismailia]]}}       || {{subst:#ifexist:Ismailia|[[Ismailia|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ismailia|]]}}        || Canal</tr>
+| [[Al Isma'iliyah Governorate|Ismailia]]       || [[Ismailia]]        || Canal</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Kafr ash Shaykh Governorate|[[Kafr ash Shaykh Governorate|Kafr el-Sheikh]]|[[Wikipedia:Kafr ash Shaykh Governorate|Kafr el-Sheikh]]}}|| {{subst:#ifexist:Kafr el-Sheikh|[[Kafr el-Sheikh|]]|[[Wikipedia:Kafr el-Sheikh|]]}}  || Lower</tr>
+| [[Kafr ash Shaykh Governorate|Kafr el-Sheikh]]|| [[Kafr el-Sheikh]]  || Lower</tr>
 |}
@@ Line 208: / Line 208: @@
 {| class="wikitable"
 ! Governorate                                   !! Capital                   !! Location</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Matruh Governorate|[[Matruh Governorate|Matruh]]|[[Wikipedia:Matruh Governorate|Matruh]]}}                 || {{subst:#ifexist:Mersa Matruh|[[Mersa Matruh|]]|[[Wikipedia:Mersa Matruh|]]}}          || Western</tr>
+| [[Matruh Governorate|Matruh]]                 || [[Mersa Matruh]]          || Western</tr>
+| [[Minya, Egypt|Minya]] || Upper</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Al Minya Governorate|[[Al Minya Governorate|Minya]]|[[Wikipedia:Al Minya Governorate|Minya]]}}                || {{subst:#ifexist:Minya, Egypt|[[Minya, Egypt|Minya]]|[[Wikipedia:Minya, Egypt|Minya]]}} || Upper</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Al Minufiyah|[[Al Minufiyah|Monufia]]|[[Wikipedia:Al Minufiyah|Monufia]]}}                      || {{subst:#ifexist:Shibin el-Kom|[[Shibin el-Kom|]]|[[Wikipedia:Shibin el-Kom|]]}}         || Lower</tr>
+| [[Al Minufiyah|Monufia]]                      || [[Shibin el-Kom]]         || Lower</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Al Wadi al Jadid Governorate|[[Al Wadi al Jadid Governorate|New Valley]]|[[Wikipedia:Al Wadi al Jadid Governorate|New Valley]]}}   || {{subst:#ifexist:Kharga|[[Kharga|]]|[[Wikipedia:Kharga|]]}}                || Western</tr>
+| [[Al Wadi al Jadid Governorate|New Valley]]   || [[Kharga]]                || Western</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Shamal Sina' Governorate|[[Shamal Sina' Governorate|North Sinai]]|[[Wikipedia:Shamal Sina' Governorate|North Sinai]]}}      || {{subst:#ifexist:Arish|[[Arish|]]|[[Wikipedia:Arish|]]}}                 || Sinai</tr>
+| [[Shamal Sina' Governorate|North Sinai]]      || [[Arish]]                 || Sinai</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Bur Sa'id Governorate|[[Bur Sa'id Governorate|Port Said]]|[[Wikipedia:Bur Sa'id Governorate|Port Said]]}}           || {{subst:#ifexist:Port Said|[[Port Said|]]|[[Wikipedia:Port Said|]]}}             || Canal</tr>
+| [[Bur Sa'id Governorate|Port Said]]           || [[Port Said]]             || Canal</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Al Qalyubiyah|[[Al Qalyubiyah|Qalyubia]]|[[Wikipedia:Al Qalyubiyah|Qalyubia]]}}                    || {{subst:#ifexist:Banha|[[Banha|]]|[[Wikipedia:Banha|]]}}                 || Lower</tr>
+| [[Al Qalyubiyah|Qalyubia]]                    || [[Banha]]                 || Lower</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Qina Governorate|[[Qina Governorate|Qena]]|[[Wikipedia:Qina Governorate|Qena]]}}                     || {{subst:#ifexist:Qena|[[Qena|]]|[[Wikipedia:Qena|]]}}                  || Upper</tr>
+| [[Qina Governorate|Qena]]                     || [[Qena]]                  || Upper</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Al Bahr Al Ahmar Governorate|[[Al Bahr Al Ahmar Governorate|Red Sea]]|[[Wikipedia:Al Bahr Al Ahmar Governorate|Red Sea]]}}      || {{subst:#ifexist:Hurghada|[[Hurghada|]]|[[Wikipedia:Hurghada|]]}}              || Eastern</tr>
+| [[Al Bahr Al Ahmar Governorate|Red Sea]]      || [[Hurghada]]              || Eastern</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Ash Sharqiyah Governorate|[[Ash Sharqiyah Governorate|Sharqia]]|[[Wikipedia:Ash Sharqiyah Governorate|Sharqia]]}}         || {{subst:#ifexist:Zagazig|[[Zagazig|]]|[[Wikipedia:Zagazig|]]}}               || Lower</tr>
+| [[Ash Sharqiyah Governorate|Sharqia]]         || [[Zagazig]]               || Lower</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Suhaj Governorate|[[Suhaj Governorate|Sohag]]|[[Wikipedia:Suhaj Governorate|Sohag]]}}                   || {{subst:#ifexist:Sohag|[[Sohag|]]|[[Wikipedia:Sohag|]]}}                 || Upper</tr>
+| [[Suhaj Governorate|Sohag]]                   || [[Sohag]]                 || Upper</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:Janub Sina' Governorate|[[Janub Sina' Governorate|South Sinai]]|[[Wikipedia:Janub Sina' Governorate|South Sinai]]}}       || {{subst:#ifexist:el-Tor|[[el-Tor|]]|[[Wikipedia:el-Tor|]]}}                || Sinai</tr>
+| [[Janub Sina' Governorate|South Sinai]]       || [[el-Tor]]                || Sinai</tr>
-| {{subst:#ifexist:As Suways Governorate|[[As Suways Governorate|Suez]]|[[Wikipedia:As Suways Governorate|Suez]]}}                || {{subst:#ifexist:Suez|[[Suez|]]|[[Wikipedia:Suez|]]}}                  || Canal</tr>
+| [[As Suways Governorate|Suez]]                || [[Suez]]                  || Canal</tr>
 |}
 |style="padding-top:8px;"|
@@ Line 228: / Line 228: @@
 {{main|Economy of Egypt}}
-[[Image:S F-E-CAMERON EGYPT nile-aswan.JPG|thumb|left|300px|The {{subst:#ifexist:Nile|[[Nile|]]|[[Wikipedia:Nile|]]}} River at the ancient city of {{subst:#ifexist:Aswan|[[Aswan|]]|[[Wikipedia:Aswan|]]}}, a popular destination for vacationers]]Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in {{subst:#ifexist:Saudi Arabia|[[Saudi Arabia|]]|[[Wikipedia:Saudi Arabia|]]}}, the {{subst:#ifexist:Persian Gulf|[[Persian Gulf|]]|[[Wikipedia:Persian Gulf|]]}} and Europe. The completion of the {{subst:#ifexist:Aswan High Dam|[[Aswan High Dam|]]|[[Wikipedia:Aswan High Dam|]]}} in 1971 and the resultant {{subst:#ifexist:Lake Nasser|[[Lake Nasser|]]|[[Wikipedia:Lake Nasser|]]}} have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the {{subst:#ifexist:agriculture|[[agriculture|]]|[[Wikipedia:agriculture|]]}} and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly-growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.
+[[Image:S F-E-CAMERON EGYPT nile-aswan.JPG|thumb|left|300px|The [[Nile]] and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly-growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.
-The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investments in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has been receiving  U.S. {{subst:#ifexist:foreign aid|[[foreign aid|]]|[[Wikipedia:foreign aid|]]}} (since 1979, an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Its main revenues however come from tourism as well as traffic that goes through the {{subst:#ifexist:Suez Canal|[[Suez Canal|]]|[[Wikipedia:Suez Canal|]]}}.
+The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investments in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has been receiving  U.S. [[foreign aid]].
 Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power.  Substantial coal deposits are in the north-east Sinai, and are mined at the rate of about 600,000t per year.  Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta.  Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at over 1.1 million cubic meters in the 1990s, and LNG is exported to many countries.
-Economic conditions have started to improve considerably after a period of stagnation from the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the {{subst:#ifexist:IMF|[[IMF|]]|[[Wikipedia:IMF|]]}} has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms. Some major economic reforms taken by the new government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by the year 2006.
+Economic conditions have started to improve considerably after a period of stagnation from the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the [[IMF]] has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms. Some major economic reforms taken by the new government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by the year 2006.
 FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) into Egypt has increased considerably in the past few years due to the recent economic liberalization measures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin, exceeding $6 billion in 2006. Egypt is slated to overcome South Africa as the highest earner of FDI on the African continent in 2007.
@@ Line 240: / Line 240: @@
 Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the trickle down of the wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticize their government for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Often corruption is blamed by Egyptians as the main impediment to feeling the benefits of the newly attained wealth. Major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure is promised by the government, with a large portion of the sum paid for the newly acquired 3rd mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat. This is slated to be pumped into the country's railroad system, in response to public outrage against the government for disasters in 2006 that claimed more than 100 lives.
-The best known examples of Egyptian companies that have expanded regionally and globally are the {{subst:#ifexist:Orascom Group|[[Orascom Group|]]|[[Wikipedia:Orascom Group|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Raya|[[Raya|]]|[[Wikipedia:Raya|]]}}. The IT sector has been expanding rapidly in the past few years, with many new start-ups conducting outsourcing business to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as numerous SME's. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya Contact Center, E Group Connections and C3 along with other start ups in that country. The sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs trying to capitalize on their country's huge potential in the sector, as well as constant government encouragement.
+The best known examples of Egyptian companies that have expanded regionally and globally are the [[Orascom Group]]. The IT sector has been expanding rapidly in the past few years, with many new start-ups conducting outsourcing business to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as numerous SME's. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya Contact Center, E Group Connections and C3 along with other start ups in that country. The sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs trying to capitalize on their country's huge potential in the sector, as well as constant government encouragement.
 == Demographics ==
 [[Image:Egyptian farm.jpg|right|230px|thumb|Egyptian farm.]]
 {{main|Demographics of Egypt|Egyptians}}
+Egypt is the most populous country in the [[Middle East]].<ref>[http://www.foodfirst.org/media/opeds/2000/4-greenrev.html Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy]</ref>
-Egypt is the most populous country in the {{subst:#ifexist:Middle East|[[Middle East|]]|[[Wikipedia:Middle East|]]}} and the second-most populous on the {{subst:#ifexist:African continent|[[African continent|]]|[[Wikipedia:African continent|]]}}, with an estimated 78 million people. Almost all the population is concentrated along the banks of the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Approximately 90% of the population adheres to {{subst:#ifexist:Islam in Egypt|[[Islam in Egypt|Islam]]|[[Wikipedia:Islam in Egypt|Islam]]}} and most of the remainder to Christianity (primarily the {{subst:#ifexist:Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|[[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Orthodox]]|[[Wikipedia:Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Orthodox]]}} denomination).<ref name="Factbook">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html#People|title=Egyptian people section from the World Factbook|work={{subst:#ifexist:World Fact Book|[[World Fact Book|]]|[[Wikipedia:World Fact Book|]]}}|accessdate=2007-01-29}}</ref> Apart from religious affiliation, Egyptians can be divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centers and the {{subst:#ifexist:fellah|[[fellah|]]|[[Wikipedia:fellah|]]}}in or farmers of rural villages. The last 40 years have seen a rapid increase in population due to {{subst:#ifexist:History of medicine#Modern medicine|[[History of medicine#Modern medicine|medical advances]]|[[Wikipedia:History of medicine#Modern medicine|medical advances]]}} and massive increase in agricultural productivity.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/6496585.stm BBC NEWS | The limits of a Green Revolution?]</ref> made by the {{subst:#ifexist:Green Revolution|[[Green Revolution|]]|[[Wikipedia:Green Revolution|]]}}.<ref>[http://www.foodfirst.org/media/opeds/2000/4-greenrev.html Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy]</ref>
+[[Egyptians]] who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanization increases.
-{{subst:#ifexist:Egyptians|[[Egyptians|]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptians|]]}} are by far the largest ethnic group in Egypt at 94% (about 72.5 million) of the total population.<ref name="Factbook" /> Ethnic minorities include the {{subst:#ifexist:Bedouin|[[Bedouin|]]|[[Wikipedia:Bedouin|]]}} Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the {{subst:#ifexist:Sinai Peninsula|[[Sinai Peninsula|]]|[[Wikipedia:Sinai Peninsula|]]}}, the {{subst:#ifexist:Berber language|[[Berber language|Berber]]|[[Wikipedia:Berber language|Berber]]}}-speaking {{subst:#ifexist:Siwis|[[Siwis|]]|[[Wikipedia:Siwis|]]}} ({{subst:#ifexist:Berber people|[[Berber people|Amazigh]]|[[Wikipedia:Berber people|Amazigh]]}}) of the {{subst:#ifexist:Siwa Oasis|[[Siwa Oasis|]]|[[Wikipedia:Siwa Oasis|]]}}, and the ancient {{subst:#ifexist:Nubian|[[Nubian|]]|[[Wikipedia:Nubian|]]}} communities clustered along the Nile. There are also interspersed communities of {{subst:#ifexist:Beja people|[[Beja people|Beja]]|[[Wikipedia:Beja people|Beja]]}} concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner of the country, and a number of {{subst:#ifexist:Dom people|[[Dom people|Dom]]|[[Wikipedia:Dom people|Dom]]}} clans mostly in the Nile Delta and {{subst:#ifexist:Faiyum|[[Faiyum|]]|[[Wikipedia:Faiyum|]]}} who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanization increases.
+Egypt also hosts an unknown number of [[refugees]] and other cities.
-Egypt also hosts an unknown number of {{subst:#ifexist:refugees|[[refugees|]]|[[Wikipedia:refugees|]]}} and asylum seekers. According to the {{subst:#ifexist:UNDP|[[UNDP|]]|[[Wikipedia:UNDP|]]}}'s 2004 Human Development Report, there were 89,000 refugees in the country,<ref name="UNDP">[http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/pdf/hdr04_HDI.pdf UNDP], p. 75.</ref> though this number may be an underestimate. There are some 70,000 {{subst:#ifexist:Palestinian refugee|[[Palestinian refugee|]]|[[Wikipedia:Palestinian refugee|]]}}s,<ref name="UNDP" /> and about 150,000 recently arrived {{subst:#ifexist:Refugees of Iraq|[[Refugees of Iraq|Iraqi refugees]]|[[Wikipedia:Refugees of Iraq|Iraqi refugees]]}},<ref>[http://hrw.org/backgrounder/refugees/iraq0407/4.htm Iraq: from a Flood to a Trickle: Egypt]</ref> but the number of the largest group, the {{subst:#ifexist:Sudanese refugees in Egypt|[[Sudanese refugees in Egypt|Sudanese]]|[[Wikipedia:Sudanese refugees in Egypt|Sudanese]]}}, is contested.<ref>See [http://www.refugees.org/countryreports.aspx?subm=&ssm=&cid=96 The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants] for a lower estimate. The [http://www.eohr.org/ref/ The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights] states on its web site that in 2000 the {{subst:#ifexist:World Council of Churches|[[World Council of Churches|]]|[[Wikipedia:World Council of Churches|]]}} claimed that "between two and five million Sudanese have come to Egypt in recent years". Most Sudanese refugees come to Egypt in the hope of resettling in Europe or the US.</ref> The once-vibrant {{subst:#ifexist:History of the Jews in Egypt|[[History of the Jews in Egypt|Jewish community in Egypt]]|[[Wikipedia:History of the Jews in Egypt|Jewish community in Egypt]]}} has virtually {{subst:#ifexist:Jewish exodus from Arab lands|[[Jewish exodus from Arab lands|disappeared]]|[[Wikipedia:Jewish exodus from Arab lands|disappeared]]}}, with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious occasions and for tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in {{subst:#ifexist:Cairo|[[Cairo|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cairo|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Alexandria|[[Alexandria|]]|[[Wikipedia:Alexandria|]]}} and other cities.
 == Religion ==
 [[Image:Cairo mosques.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Cairo's unique cityscape with its ancient mosques]]
 {{main|Religion in Egypt}}
+Religion plays a central role in most Egyptians' lives. The [[Adhan|rolling calls to prayer]] that are heard five times a day have the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to entertainment. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque [[minaret]].
-Religion plays a central role in most Egyptians' lives. The {{subst:#ifexist:Adhan|[[Adhan|rolling calls to prayer]]|[[Wikipedia:Adhan|rolling calls to prayer]]}} that are heard five times a day have the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to entertainment. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque {{subst:#ifexist:minaret|[[minaret|]]|[[Wikipedia:minaret|]]}}s and church towers. This religious landscape has been marred by a record of religious extremism.<ref name="us_dos_egypt">{{cite web | title = Egypt: International Religious Freedom Report | date = 2004-09-15 | author = U.S. Department of State | publisher = Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor | url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35496.htm | accessdate = 2006-10-20}}</ref> Most recently,  a [[16 December]] [[2006]] judgment of the {{subst:#ifexist:high court|[[high court|Supreme Administrative Council]]|[[Wikipedia:high court|Supreme Administrative Council]]}} of Egypt insisted on a clear demarcation between "recognized religions"—Islam, Christianity and Judaism—and all other religious beliefs—thus effectively delegitimatizing and forbidding practice of all but these aforementioned religions.<ref name="eipr2">{{cite web | title =  Government Must Find Solution for Baha'i Egyptians | date = 2006-12-16 | accessdate = 2006-12-16 | author = Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights | publisher = eipr.org | url = http://www.eipr.org/en/press/06/1612.htm}}</ref>  This judgment has led to the requirement for communities to either commit perjury or be subjected to {{subst:#ifexist:egyptian identification card controversy|[[egyptian identification card controversy|denial of identification cards]]|[[Wikipedia:egyptian identification card controversy|denial of identification cards]]}}.
+Egypt is predominantly Muslim, at 80-90% of the population, with the majority being adherents of the [[Sunni]].
-Egypt is predominantly Muslim, at 80-90% of the population, with the majority being adherents of the {{subst:#ifexist:Sunni|[[Sunni|]]|[[Wikipedia:Sunni|]]}} branch of Islam<ref name="Factbook" /> A significant number of Muslim Egyptians also follow native {{subst:#ifexist:Sufism|[[Sufism|Sufi]]|[[Wikipedia:Sufism|Sufi]]}} {{subst:#ifexist:Tariqah|[[Tariqah|orders]]|[[Wikipedia:Tariqah|orders]]}},<ref>Hoffman, Valerie J. ''Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt''. University of South Carolina Press, 1995.</ref> and a minority of {{subst:#ifexist:Shi'a|[[Shi'a|]]|[[Wikipedia:Shi'a|]]}}.
+Christians represent 10-20% of the population, more than 95% of whom belong to the native [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]].
-Christians represent 10-20% of the population, more than 95% of whom belong to the native {{subst:#ifexist:Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|[[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|]]|[[Wikipedia:Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|]]}}. Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the {{subst:#ifexist:Coptic Catholic Church|[[Coptic Catholic Church|]]|[[Wikipedia:Coptic Catholic Church|]]}}, the {{subst:#ifexist:Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile)|[[Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile)|Coptic Evangelical Church]]|[[Wikipedia:Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile)|Coptic Evangelical Church]]}} and various Coptic {{subst:#ifexist:Protestantism|[[Protestantism|Protestant]]|[[Wikipedia:Protestantism|Protestant]]}} denominations. Non-native {{subst:#ifexist:Christian|[[Christian|]]|[[Wikipedia:Christian|]]}} communities are largely found in the urban regions of {{subst:#ifexist:Alexandria|[[Alexandria|]]|[[Wikipedia:Alexandria|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Cairo|[[Cairo|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cairo|]]}}, and are members of the {{subst:#ifexist:Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria|[[Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria|]]|[[Wikipedia:Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria|]]}}, the {{subst:#ifexist:Melkite Greek Catholic Church|[[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|]]|[[Wikipedia:Melkite Greek Catholic Church|]]}}, the {{subst:#ifexist:Armenian Apostolic Church|[[Armenian Apostolic Church|]]|[[Wikipedia:Armenian Apostolic Church|]]}}, the {{subst:#ifexist:Roman Catholic Church|[[Roman Catholic Church|]]|[[Wikipedia:Roman Catholic Church|]]}}, the {{subst:#ifexist:Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East|[[Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East|]]|[[Wikipedia:Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East|]]}}, the {{subst:#ifexist:Maronite Church|[[Maronite Church|]]|[[Wikipedia:Maronite Church|]]}}, the {{subst:#ifexist:Armenian Catholic Church|[[Armenian Catholic Church|]]|[[Wikipedia:Armenian Catholic Church|]]}}, the {{subst:#ifexist:Chaldean Catholic Church|[[Chaldean Catholic Church|]]|[[Wikipedia:Chaldean Catholic Church|]]}}, the {{subst:#ifexist:Syriac Catholic Church|[[Syriac Catholic Church|]]|[[Wikipedia:Syriac Catholic Church|]]}}, or the {{subst:#ifexist:Syriac Orthodox Church|[[Syriac Orthodox Church|]]|[[Wikipedia:Syriac Orthodox Church|]]}}.
+According to the [[Constitution of Egypt]]'' judgements on Islamic issues.
-According to the {{subst:#ifexist:Constitution of Egypt|[[Constitution of Egypt|]]|[[Wikipedia:Constitution of Egypt|]]}}, any new legislation must at least implicitly agree with {{subst:#ifexist:Sharia|[[Sharia|Islamic laws]]|[[Wikipedia:Sharia|Islamic laws]]}}. The mainstream {{subst:#ifexist:Hanafi|[[Hanafi|]]|[[Wikipedia:Hanafi|]]}} school of {{subst:#ifexist:Sunni|[[Sunni|]]|[[Wikipedia:Sunni|]]}} Islam is largely organised by the state, through ''Wizaret Al-Awkaf'' (Ministry of Religious Affairs). ''Al-Awkaf'' controls all mosques and overviews Muslim clerics. {{subst:#ifexist:Imams|[[Imams|]]|[[Wikipedia:Imams|]]}} are trained in Imam vocational schools and at {{subst:#ifexist:Al-Azhar University|[[Al-Azhar University|]]|[[Wikipedia:Al-Azhar University|]]}}. The department supports Sunni Islam and has commissions authorised to give ''{{subst:#ifexist:Fatwa|[[Fatwa|]]|[[Wikipedia:Fatwa|]]}}'' judgements on Islamic issues.
+Egypt hosts two major religious institutions. [[Al-Azhar University]].
-Egypt hosts two major religious institutions. {{subst:#ifexist:Al-Azhar University|[[Al-Azhar University|]]|[[Wikipedia:Al-Azhar University|]]}} (Arabic: جامعة الأزهر) is the oldest {{subst:#ifexist:Islam|[[Islam|]]|[[Wikipedia:Islam|]]}}ic institution of higher studies (founded around 970 {{subst:#ifexist:A.D|[[A.D|]]|[[Wikipedia:A.D|]]}}) and considered by many to be the oldest extant university. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, headed by the {{subst:#ifexist:Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|[[Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|]]|[[Wikipedia:Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|]]}}, attests to Egypt's strong Christian heritage. It has a following of approximately 15 million {{subst:#ifexist:Christian|[[Christian|]]|[[Wikipedia:Christian|]]}}s worldwide; affiliated sister churches are located in {{subst:#ifexist:Armenia|[[Armenia|]]|[[Wikipedia:Armenia|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Ethiopia|[[Ethiopia|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ethiopia|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Eritrea|[[Eritrea|]]|[[Wikipedia:Eritrea|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:India|[[India|]]|[[Wikipedia:India|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Lebanon|[[Lebanon|]]|[[Wikipedia:Lebanon|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Syria|[[Syria|]]|[[Wikipedia:Syria|]]}}.
-Religious freedom in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by extremist {{subst:#ifexist:Islamism|[[Islamism|Islamist]]|[[Wikipedia:Islamism|Islamist]]}} groups and by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Being the largest religious minority in Egypt, Coptic Christians are the most negatively affected community. {{subst:#ifexist:Copt|[[Copt|]]|[[Wikipedia:Copt|]]}}s have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 {{subst:#ifexist:coup d'état|[[coup d'état|]]|[[Wikipedia:coup d'état|]]}} led by {{subst:#ifexist:Gamal Abdel Nasser|[[Gamal Abdel Nasser|]]|[[Wikipedia:Gamal Abdel Nasser|]]}}. Until recently, {{subst:#ifexist:Christians|[[Christians|]]|[[Wikipedia:Christians|]]}} were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles in building new or repairing existing churches. These obstacles are not found in building mosques.<ref>WorldWide Religious News. [http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=19813&sec=36&cont=3 Church Building Regulations Eased]. [[December 13]], [[2005]].</ref><ref>Compass Direct News. [http://www.compassdirect.org/en/newslongen.php?idelement=4132&id=17&critere=&countryname=&rowcur=25 Church Building Regulations Eased]. December 13, 2005.</ref>
+Religious freedom in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by extremist [[Islamism|Islamist]] groups and by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Being the largest religious minority in Egypt, Coptic Christians are the most negatively affected community. [[Copt]] were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles in building new or repairing existing churches. These obstacles are not found in building mosques.<ref>WorldWide Religious News. [http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=19813&sec=36&cont=3 Church Building Regulations Eased]. [[December 13]], [[2005]].</ref><ref>Compass Direct News. [http://www.compassdirect.org/en/newslongen.php?idelement=4132&id=17&critere=&countryname=&rowcur=25 Church Building Regulations Eased]. December 13, 2005.</ref>
-In addition, Copts complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.<ref>Human Rights Watch. [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt]. 2005</ref> The Coptic community, as well as several human rights activists and intellectuals (such as {{subst:#ifexist:Saad Eddin Ibrahim|[[Saad Eddin Ibrahim|]]|[[Wikipedia:Saad Eddin Ibrahim|]]}} and Tarek Heggy), maintain that the number of Christians occupying government posts is not proportional to the number of Copts in Egypt, who constitute between 10 and 15% of the population in Egypt. Of the 32 {{subst:#ifexist:Cabinet of Egypt|[[Cabinet of Egypt|cabinet ministers]]|[[Wikipedia:Cabinet of Egypt|cabinet ministers]]}}, two are Copts: Finance Minister {{subst:#ifexist:Youssef Boutros Ghali|[[Youssef Boutros Ghali|]]|[[Wikipedia:Youssef Boutros Ghali|]]}} and Minister of Environment Magued George; and of the 25 local governors, only one is a Copt (in the {{subst:#ifexist:Upper Egypt|[[Upper Egypt|]]|[[Wikipedia:Upper Egypt|]]}}ian governorate of {{subst:#ifexist:Qena|[[Qena|]]|[[Wikipedia:Qena|]]}}). However, Copts have demonstrated great success in Egypt's private business sector; {{subst:#ifexist:Naguib Sawiris|[[Naguib Sawiris|]]|[[Wikipedia:Naguib Sawiris|]]}}, an extremely successful businessman and one of the world's wealthiest 100 people is a Copt. In 2002, under the {{subst:#ifexist:Mubarak|[[Mubarak|]]|[[Wikipedia:Mubarak|]]}} government, Coptic {{subst:#ifexist:Christmas|[[Christmas|]]|[[Wikipedia:Christmas|]]}} (January 7) was recognized as an official holiday.<ref>ArabicNews.com. [http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/021220/2002122025.html Copts welcome Presidential announcement on Eastern Christmas Holiday]. [[December 20]], [[2002]].</ref>  Nevertheless, the Coptic community has occasionally been the target of hate crimes and physical assaults. The most significant was the 2000-2001 El Kosheh attacks , in which 21 Copts and one Muslim were killed. A 2006 attack on three churches in {{subst:#ifexist:Alexandria|[[Alexandria|]]|[[Wikipedia:Alexandria|]]}} left one dead and 17 injured, although the attacker was not linked to any organisation.<ref>BBC. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4911346.stm Egypt church attacks spark anger], [[15 April]] [[2006]].</ref>
+In addition, Copts complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.<ref>Human Rights Watch. [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt]. 2005</ref> The Coptic community, as well as several human rights activists and intellectuals (such as [[Saad Eddin Ibrahim]] left one dead and 17 injured, although the attacker was not linked to any organisation.<ref>BBC. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4911346.stm Egypt church attacks spark anger], [[15 April]] [[2006]].</ref>
+Egypt was once home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world. [[Egyptian Jews]] with Israel in 1967. Today, Jews in Egypt number less than 500.<ref>Jewish Community Council (JCC) of Cairo. [http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Vines/5855/bassa20.htm Bassatine News]. 2006.</ref>
-Egypt was once home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world. {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian Jews|[[Egyptian Jews|]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian Jews|]]}}, who were mostly {{subst:#ifexist:Karaite Judaism|[[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]]|[[Wikipedia:Karaite Judaism|Karaites]]}}, partook of all aspects of Egypt's social, economic and political life; one of the most ardent Egyptian nationalists, {{subst:#ifexist:Yaqub Sanu|[[Yaqub Sanu|]]|[[Wikipedia:Yaqub Sanu|]]}}' (Abu Naddara), was a Jew, as were famous musician Dawoud Husni, popular singer {{subst:#ifexist:Leila Mourad|[[Leila Mourad|]]|[[Wikipedia:Leila Mourad|]]}}, and prominent filmmaker Togo Mizrahi. For a while, Jews from across the {{subst:#ifexist:Ottoman Empire|[[Ottoman Empire|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ottoman Empire|]]}} and Europe were attracted to Egypt due to the relative harmony that characterized the local religious landscape in the 19th and early 20th centuries. After the 1956 {{subst:#ifexist:Suez Crisis|[[Suez Crisis|]]|[[Wikipedia:Suez Crisis|]]}}, a great number of Jews were expelled by {{subst:#ifexist:Gamal Abdel Nasser|[[Gamal Abdel Nasser|]]|[[Wikipedia:Gamal Abdel Nasser|]]}}, many of whom holding official Egyptian citizenship. Their Egyptian citizenship was revoked and their property was confiscated. A steady stream of migration of Egyptian Jews followed, reaching a peak after the {{subst:#ifexist:Six-Day War|[[Six-Day War|]]|[[Wikipedia:Six-Day War|]]}} with Israel in 1967. Today, Jews in Egypt number less than 500.<ref>Jewish Community Council (JCC) of Cairo. [http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Vines/5855/bassa20.htm Bassatine News]. 2006.</ref>
-[[Image:monastry3.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Over ten million Egyptians follow the {{subst:#ifexist:Christianity|[[Christianity|Christian]]|[[Wikipedia:Christianity|Christian]]}} faith as members of the {{subst:#ifexist:Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|[[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|]]|[[Wikipedia:Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|]]}}.]]
+[[Image:monastry3.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Over ten million Egyptians follow the [[Christianity|Christian]] faith as members of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]].]]
+[[Egyptian identification card controversy|identity cards]]</ref>
-{{subst:#ifexist:Bahá'í Faith|[[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]]|[[Wikipedia:Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]]}} in Egypt, whose population is estimated to be a couple of thousands, have long been {{subst:#ifexist:Persecution of Bahá'ís#Egypt|[[Persecution of Bahá'ís#Egypt|persecuted]]|[[Wikipedia:Persecution of Bahá'ís#Egypt|persecuted]]}}, having their institutions and community activities banned. Since their faith is not officially recognized by the state, they are also not allowed to use it on their national {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian identification card controversy|[[Egyptian identification card controversy|identity cards]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian identification card controversy|identity cards]]}} (conversely, Islam, Christianity, & Judaism are officially recognized); hence most of them do not hold national identity cards. In April 2006 a court case recognized the Bahá'í Faith, but the government appealed the court decision and succeeded in having it suspended on 15 May.<ref name="note9">"[http://www.payvand.com/news/06/may/1164.html EGYPT: Court suspends ruling recognising Bahai rights]", ''Payvand's Iran News" 5/17/06</ref> On [[December 16]], [[2006]], only after one hearing, the Supreme Administrative Council of Egypt ruled against the Bahá'ís, stating that the government may not recognize the Bahá'í Faith in official identification documents.<ref name="eipr2">{{cite web | title =  Government Must Find Solution for Baha'i Egyptians | date = 2006-12-16 | accessdate = 2006-12-16 | author = Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights | publisher = eipr.org | url = http://www.eipr.org/en/press/06/1612.htm}}</ref>
+There are Egyptians who identify as [[atheist]]</ref>
-There are Egyptians who identify as {{subst:#ifexist:atheist|[[atheist|]]|[[Wikipedia:atheist|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:agnostic|[[agnostic|]]|[[Wikipedia:agnostic|]]}}, but their numbers are largely unknown as openly advocating such positions risks legal sanction on the basis of apostasy (if a citizen takes the step of suing the 'apostating' person, though not automatically by the general prosecutor). In 2000, an openly atheist Egyptian writer, who called for the establishment of a local association for atheists, was tried on charges of insulting Islam in four of his books.<ref name="note6">{{cite news |first=Jailan |last=Halawi |pages= |title=Limits to expression |date=21-[[27 December]] [[2000]] |publisher=Al-Ahram Weekly |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/513/eg7.htm}}</ref>
-While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to {{subst:#ifexist:Human Rights Watch|[[Human Rights Watch|]]|[[Wikipedia:Human Rights Watch|]]}}, "Egyptians are able to convert to Islam generally without difficulty, but Muslims who convert to Christianity face difficulties in getting new identity papers and some have been arrested for allegedly forging such documents.<ref>[http://hrw.org/englishwr2k7/docs/2007/01/11/egypt14701.htm Human Rights Watch. World report 2007: Egypt].</ref> The Coptic community, however, takes pains to prevent conversions from Christianity to Islam due to the ease with which Christians can often become Muslim. <ref>[http://www.ahram.org.eg/acpss/eng/ahram/2004/7/5/ARAB43.HTM EGYPT: NATIONAL UNITY AND THE COPTIC ISSUE]. 2004</ref> Public officials, being conservative themselves, intensify the complexity of the legal procedures required to recognize the religion change as required by law. Security agencies will sometimes claim that such conversions from {{subst:#ifexist:Islam|[[Islam|]]|[[Wikipedia:Islam|]]}} to {{subst:#ifexist:Christianity|[[Christianity|]]|[[Wikipedia:Christianity|]]}} (or occasionally vice versa) may stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining the subjects, insisting that they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening.<ref>[http://www.comeandsee.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=502 Egypt: Egypt Arrests 22 Muslim converts to Christianity]. 03 November, 2003</ref> Recently, a Cairo administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion to Christianity after converting to Islam.<ref>Shahine, Gihan. [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2007/843/eg8.htm "Fraud, not Freedom".] Ahram Weekly, 3 - 9 May 2007</ref>
+While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to [[Human Rights Watch]] (or occasionally vice versa) may stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining the subjects, insisting that they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening.<ref>[http://www.comeandsee.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=502 Egypt: Egypt Arrests 22 Muslim converts to Christianity]. 03 November, 2003</ref> Recently, a Cairo administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion to Christianity after converting to Islam.<ref>Shahine, Gihan. [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2007/843/eg8.htm "Fraud, not Freedom".] Ahram Weekly, 3 - 9 May 2007</ref>
 == Culture ==
-[[Image:LibraryAlexandria1-Omar.jpg|thumb|left|250px|{{subst:#ifexist:Bibliotheca Alexandrina|[[Bibliotheca Alexandrina|]]|[[Wikipedia:Bibliotheca Alexandrina|]]}} is a commemoration of the ancient {{subst:#ifexist:Library of Alexandria|[[Library of Alexandria|]]|[[Wikipedia:Library of Alexandria|]]}} in Egypt's second largest city.]]
+[[Image:LibraryAlexandria1-Omar.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Bibliotheca Alexandrina]] in Egypt's second largest city.]]
 {{main|Culture of Egypt}}
+[[Culture of Egypt|Egyptian culture]] has five thousand years of recorded history. [[Ancient Egypt]], itself with roots in ancient Egypt.
-{{subst:#ifexist:Culture of Egypt|[[Culture of Egypt|Egyptian culture]]|[[Wikipedia:Culture of Egypt|Egyptian culture]]}} has five thousand years of recorded history. {{subst:#ifexist:Ancient Egypt|[[Ancient Egypt|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ancient Egypt|]]}} was among the earliest {{subst:#ifexist:civilization|[[civilization|]]|[[Wikipedia:civilization|]]}}s and for millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the {{subst:#ifexist:Middle East|[[Middle East|]]|[[Wikipedia:Middle East|]]}} and Africa. After the Pharaonic era, Egypt itself came under the influence of {{subst:#ifexist:Hellenistic civilization|[[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenism]]|[[Wikipedia:Hellenistic civilization|Hellenism]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Christianity|[[Christianity|]]|[[Wikipedia:Christianity|]]}}, and {{subst:#ifexist:Islam|[[Islam|]]|[[Wikipedia:Islam|]]}}ic culture. Today, many aspects of Egypt's ancient culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern {{subst:#ifexist:Western culture|[[Western culture|]]|[[Wikipedia:Western culture|]]}}, itself with roots in ancient Egypt.
-Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. Egypt has the highest number of {{subst:#ifexist:List of Nobel laureates|[[List of Nobel laureates|Nobel Laureates]]|[[Wikipedia:List of Nobel laureates|Nobel Laureates]]}} in Africa and the Arab World. Some Egyptian born politicians were or are currently at the helm of major international organizations like {{subst:#ifexist:Boutros Boutros-Ghali|[[Boutros Boutros-Ghali|]]|[[Wikipedia:Boutros Boutros-Ghali|]]}} of the {{subst:#ifexist:United Nations|[[United Nations|]]|[[Wikipedia:United Nations|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Mohamed ElBaradei|[[Mohamed ElBaradei|]]|[[Wikipedia:Mohamed ElBaradei|]]}} of the {{subst:#ifexist:IAEA|[[IAEA|]]|[[Wikipedia:IAEA|]]}}.
+Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. Egypt has the highest number of [[List of Nobel laureates|Nobel Laureates]] in Africa and the Arab World. Some Egyptian born politicians were or are currently at the helm of major international organizations like [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]].
 ====Renaissance====
+The work of early nineteenth-century scholar Rifa'a et-Tahtawi gave rise to the Egyptian Renaissance, marking the transition from [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer [[Ali Mubarak]] and faith in science to bring progress.<ref>Jankowski, ''op cit''., p. 130</ref>
-The work of early nineteenth-century scholar Rifa'a et-Tahtawi gave rise to the Egyptian Renaissance, marking the transition from {{subst:#ifexist:History of Ottoman Egypt|[[History of Ottoman Egypt|Medieval]]|[[Wikipedia:History of Ottoman Egypt|Medieval]]}} to {{subst:#ifexist:History of Modern Egypt|[[History of Modern Egypt|Early Modern]]|[[Wikipedia:History of Modern Egypt|Early Modern]]}} Egypt. His work renewed interest in {{subst:#ifexist:Ancient Egypt|[[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian antiquity]]|[[Wikipedia:Ancient Egypt|Egyptian antiquity]]}} and exposed Egyptian society to {{subst:#ifexist:Age of Enlightenment|[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]|[[Wikipedia:Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]}} principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer {{subst:#ifexist:Ali Mubarak|[[Ali Mubarak|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ali Mubarak|]]}} a native {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptology|[[Egyptology|]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptology|]]}} school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as {{subst:#ifexist:Suyuti|[[Suyuti|]]|[[Wikipedia:Suyuti|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Maqrizi|[[Maqrizi|]]|[[Wikipedia:Maqrizi|]]}}, who themselves studied the {{subst:#ifexist:History of ancient Egypt|[[History of ancient Egypt|history]]|[[Wikipedia:History of ancient Egypt|history]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian language|[[Egyptian language|language]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian language|language]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Ancient Egyptian architecture|[[Ancient Egyptian architecture|antiquities]]|[[Wikipedia:Ancient Egyptian architecture|antiquities]]}} of Egypt.<ref>El-Daly, ''op cit''., p. 29</ref> Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like {{subst:#ifexist:Muhammad Abduh|[[Muhammad Abduh|]]|[[Wikipedia:Muhammad Abduh|]]}}, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, {{subst:#ifexist:Qasim Amin|[[Qasim Amin|]]|[[Wikipedia:Qasim Amin|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Salama Moussa|[[Salama Moussa|]]|[[Wikipedia:Salama Moussa|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Taha Hussein|[[Taha Hussein|]]|[[Wikipedia:Taha Hussein|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Mahmoud Mokhtar|[[Mahmoud Mokhtar|]]|[[Wikipedia:Mahmoud Mokhtar|]]}}. They forged a {{subst:#ifexist:liberalism|[[liberalism|liberal]]|[[Wikipedia:liberalism|liberal]]}} path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to individual freedom, {{subst:#ifexist:secularism|[[secularism|]]|[[Wikipedia:secularism|]]}} and faith in science to bring progress.<ref>Jankowski, ''op cit''., p. 130</ref>
 ====Arts====
-[[Image:Maler der Grabkammer des Ramose 002.jpg|thumb|250px|{{subst:#ifexist:Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|[[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth dynasty]]|[[Wikipedia:Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth dynasty]]}} painting from the tomb of {{subst:#ifexist:Thebes, Egypt|[[Thebes, Egypt|Theban]]|[[Wikipedia:Thebes, Egypt|Theban]]}} governor {{subst:#ifexist:Ramose|[[Ramose|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ramose|]]}} in {{subst:#ifexist:Deir el-Madinah|[[Deir el-Madinah|]]|[[Wikipedia:Deir el-Madinah|]]}}.]]
+[[Image:Maler der Grabkammer des Ramose 002.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Thebes, Egypt|Theban]] governor [[Ramose]].]]
+The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art. The wall paintings done in the service of the [[Pharaoh]], have achieved worldwide fame.
-The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art. The wall paintings done in the service of the {{subst:#ifexist:Pharaoh|[[Pharaoh|]]|[[Wikipedia:Pharaoh|]]}}s followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene. The {{subst:#ifexist:Cairo Opera House|[[Cairo Opera House|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cairo Opera House|]]}} serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. Egypt's media and arts industry has flourished since the late nineteenth century, today with more than thirty satellite channels and over one hundred motion pictures produced each year. Cairo has long been known as the "Hollywood of the Middle East;" its annual film festival, the {{subst:#ifexist:Cairo International Film Festival|[[Cairo International Film Festival|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cairo International Film Festival|]]}}, has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.<ref>[http://www.ukhotmovies.com/film-festivals/cairo-film-festival/information.html Cairo Film Festival information].</ref> To bolster its media industry further, especially with the keen competition from the {{subst:#ifexist:Persian Gulf Arab States|[[Persian Gulf Arab States|]]|[[Wikipedia:Persian Gulf Arab States|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Lebanon|[[Lebanon|]]|[[Wikipedia:Lebanon|]]}}, a large media city was built. Some Egyptian actors, like {{subst:#ifexist:Omar Sharif|[[Omar Sharif|]]|[[Wikipedia:Omar Sharif|]]}}, have achieved worldwide fame.
 ====Literature====
+[[Literature]].
-{{subst:#ifexist:Literature|[[Literature|]]|[[Wikipedia:Literature|]]}} constitutes an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East. The first modern Egyptian novel ''{{subst:#ifexist:Zaynab (novel)|[[Zaynab (novel)|Zaynab]]|[[Wikipedia:Zaynab (novel)|Zaynab]]}}'' by {{subst:#ifexist:Muhammad Husayn Haykal|[[Muhammad Husayn Haykal|]]|[[Wikipedia:Muhammad Husayn Haykal|]]}} was published in 1913 in the {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian Arabic|[[Egyptian Arabic|Egyptian vernacular]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian Arabic|Egyptian vernacular]]}}.<ref>Vatikiotis, ''op cit''.</ref> Egyptian novelist {{subst:#ifexist:Naguib Mahfouz|[[Naguib Mahfouz|]]|[[Wikipedia:Naguib Mahfouz|]]}} was the first Arabic-language writer to win the {{subst:#ifexist:Nobel Prize in Literature|[[Nobel Prize in Literature|]]|[[Wikipedia:Nobel Prize in Literature|]]}}. Egyptian women writers include {{subst:#ifexist:Nawal El Saadawi|[[Nawal El Saadawi|]]|[[Wikipedia:Nawal El Saadawi|]]}}, well known for her {{subst:#ifexist:feminism|[[feminism|feminist]]|[[Wikipedia:feminism|feminist]]}} {{subst:#ifexist:activism|[[activism|]]|[[Wikipedia:activism|]]}}, and {{subst:#ifexist:Alifa Rifaat|[[Alifa Rifaat|]]|[[Wikipedia:Alifa Rifaat|]]}} who also writes about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre amongst Egyptians, represented by such luminaries as Ahmed Fuad Nigm (Fagumi), {{subst:#ifexist:Salah Jaheen|[[Salah Jaheen|]]|[[Wikipedia:Salah Jaheen|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi|[[Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi|]]|[[Wikipedia:Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi|]]}}.
 ====Music====
-[[Image:Egyptian musicians.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Upper Egyptian folk musicians from {{subst:#ifexist:Kom Ombo|[[Kom Ombo|]]|[[Wikipedia:Kom Ombo|]]}}.]]
+[[Image:Egyptian musicians.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Upper Egyptian folk musicians from [[Kom Ombo]].]]
 {{main|Music of Egypt}}
-{{subst:#ifexist:Music of Egypt|[[Music of Egypt|Egyptian music]]|[[Wikipedia:Music of Egypt|Egyptian music]]}} is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. In {{subst:#ifexist:Ancient Egypt|[[Ancient Egypt|antiquity]]|[[Wikipedia:Ancient Egypt|antiquity]]}}, Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the {{subst:#ifexist:ney|[[ney|]]|[[Wikipedia:ney|]]}} and the {{subst:#ifexist:oud|[[oud|]]|[[Wikipedia:oud|]]}}. {{subst:#ifexist:Percussion|[[Percussion|]]|[[Wikipedia:Percussion|]]}} and vocal music also became an important part of the local music tradition ever since. Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmud Osman, who influenced the later work of Egyptian music giants such as {{subst:#ifexist:Sayed Darwish|[[Sayed Darwish|]]|[[Wikipedia:Sayed Darwish|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Umm Kulthum|[[Umm Kulthum|]]|[[Wikipedia:Umm Kulthum|]]}}, {{subst:#ifexist:Mohammed Abdel Wahab|[[Mohammed Abdel Wahab|]]|[[Wikipedia:Mohammed Abdel Wahab|]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:Abdel Halim Hafez|[[Abdel Halim Hafez|]]|[[Wikipedia:Abdel Halim Hafez|]]}}. These prominent artists were followed later by {{subst:#ifexist:Amr Diab|[[Amr Diab|]]|[[Wikipedia:Amr Diab|]]}}. He is seen by many as the new age "Musical Legend", whose fan base stretches all over the Middle East and Europe. From the 1970s onwards, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk music continues to be played during weddings and other festivities.
+[[Ancient Egypt|antiquity]], Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the [[ney]]. He is seen by many as the new age "Musical Legend", whose fan base stretches all over the Middle East and Europe. From the 1970s onwards, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk music continues to be played during weddings and other festivities.
 ====Festivals====
+Egypt is famous for its many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as '''mulids''' or [[Mawlid]] Sunday.
-Egypt is famous for its many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as '''mulids''' or {{subst:#ifexist:Mawlid|[[Mawlid|]]|[[Wikipedia:Mawlid|]]}}. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by all Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. {{subst:#ifexist:Ramadan|[[Ramadan|]]|[[Wikipedia:Ramadan|]]}} has a special flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as ''fawanees'') and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt during Ramadan to witness the spectacle. The ancient spring festival of {{subst:#ifexist:Sham El Nessim|[[Sham El Nessim|Sham en Nisim]]|[[Wikipedia:Sham El Nessim|Sham en Nisim]]}} ({{subst:#ifexist:Coptic language|[[Coptic language|Coptic]]|[[Wikipedia:Coptic language|Coptic]]}}: {{Coptic|Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙ}} ''shom en nisim'') has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the {{subst:#ifexist:Egyptian calendar|[[Egyptian calendar|Egyptian months]]|[[Wikipedia:Egyptian calendar|Egyptian months]]}} of {{subst:#ifexist:Paremoude|[[Paremoude|]]|[[Wikipedia:Paremoude|]]}} (April) and {{subst:#ifexist:Pashons|[[Pashons|]]|[[Wikipedia:Pashons|]]}} (May), following {{subst:#ifexist:Easter|[[Easter|]]|[[Wikipedia:Easter|]]}} Sunday.
 ====Sports====
-[[Image:98228505 21d43dad6d.jpg|thumb|{{subst:#ifexist:Cairo International Stadium|[[Cairo International Stadium|]]|[[Wikipedia:Cairo International Stadium|]]}} during the {{subst:#ifexist:2006 African Cup of Nations|[[2006 African Cup of Nations|]]|[[Wikipedia:2006 African Cup of Nations|]]}}]]
+[[Image:98228505 21d43dad6d.jpg|thumb|[[Cairo International Stadium]]]]
-{{subst:#ifexist:Football (soccer)|[[Football (soccer)|]]|[[Wikipedia:Football (soccer)|]]}} is the ''de facto'' {{subst:#ifexist:national sport|[[national sport|]]|[[Wikipedia:national sport|]]}} of Egypt. Egyptian Soccer clubs {{subst:#ifexist:Al-Ahly|[[Al-Ahly|El Ahly]]|[[Wikipedia:Al-Ahly|El Ahly]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:El Zamalek|[[El Zamalek|]]|[[Wikipedia:El Zamalek|]]}} are the two most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long-time regional champions. The great rivalries keep the streets of Egypt energized as people fill the streets when their favourite team wins. Egypt is rich in soccer history as soccer has been around for over 100 years. The country is home to many African championships such as the African Cup of Nations. However, Egypt's national team has not been qualified for the FIFA World Cup since 1990.
+[[Football (soccer)]] are the two most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long-time regional champions. The great rivalries keep the streets of Egypt energized as people fill the streets when their favourite team wins. Egypt is rich in soccer history as soccer has been around for over 100 years. The country is home to many African championships such as the African Cup of Nations. However, Egypt's national team has not been qualified for the FIFA World Cup since 1990.
-{{subst:#ifexist:Squash (sport)|[[Squash (sport)|Squash]]|[[Wikipedia:Squash (sport)|Squash]]}} and {{subst:#ifexist:tennis|[[tennis|]]|[[Wikipedia:tennis|]]}} are other favourite sports. The Egyptian squash team has been known for its fierce competition in international championships since the 1930s.
+[[Squash (sport)|Squash]] and [[tennis]] are other favourite sports. The Egyptian squash team has been known for its fierce competition in international championships since the 1930s.
 == Military ==
 {{main|Military of Egypt}}
 <!--PLEASE DO NOT EXPAND THIS SECTION AND INSTEAD DO SO AT THE MAIN ARTICLE-->
-The [[Wikipedia:Egyptian Army|Egyptian Armed forces]] have a combined troop strength of around 450,000 active personnel.<ref>[http://www.globalfirepower.com/country_detail.asp?country_id=12 Egypt Military Strength]</ref> According to the Israeli chair of the Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, [[Wikipedia:Yuval Steinitz|Yuval Steinitz]], the [[Wikipedia:Egyptian Air Force|Egyptian Air Force]] has roughly the same number of modern warplanes as the [[Wikipedia:Israeli Air Force|Israeli Air Force]] and far more Western tanks, artillery, anti-aircraft batteries and warships than the [[Wikipedia:Israel Defense Forces|IDF]].<ref>Steinitz, Yuval. [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/795822.html Not the peace we expected]. Haaretz. [[December 05]], [[2006]].</ref> The Egyptian military has recently undergone massive military modernization mostly in their Air Force. Other than Israel, Egypt is the first country in the region with a [[Wikipedia:spy satellite|spy satellite]], [[Wikipedia:EgyptSat 1|EgyptSat 1]], and is planning to launch 3 more spy satellites (DesertSat1, EgyptSat2, DesertSat2) over the next two years.<ref>Katz, Yaacov. "Egypt to launch first spy satellite," ''{{subst:#ifexist:Jerusalem Post|[[Jerusalem Post|]]|[[Wikipedia:Jerusalem Post|]]}}, [[January 15]], [[2007]].</ref>
+The [[Wikipedia:Egyptian Army|Egyptian Armed forces]] have a combined troop strength of around 450,000 active personnel.<ref>[http://www.globalfirepower.com/country_detail.asp?country_id=12 Egypt Military Strength]</ref> According to the Israeli chair of the Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, [[Wikipedia:Yuval Steinitz|Yuval Steinitz]], the [[Wikipedia:Egyptian Air Force|Egyptian Air Force]] has roughly the same number of modern warplanes as the [[Wikipedia:Israeli Air Force|Israeli Air Force]] and far more Western tanks, artillery, anti-aircraft batteries and warships than the [[Wikipedia:Israel Defense Forces|IDF]].<ref>Steinitz, Yuval. [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/795822.html Not the peace we expected]. Haaretz. [[December 05]], [[2006]].</ref> The Egyptian military has recently undergone massive military modernization mostly in their Air Force. Other than Israel, Egypt is the first country in the region with a [[Wikipedia:spy satellite|spy satellite]], [[Wikipedia:EgyptSat 1|EgyptSat 1]], and is planning to launch 3 more spy satellites (DesertSat1, EgyptSat2, DesertSat2) over the next two years.<ref>Katz, Yaacov. "Egypt to launch first spy satellite," ''[[Jerusalem Post]], [[January 15]], [[2007]].</ref>
 == Geography ==