Editing Australia

== History ==

=== Prehistory ===

{{Further|Indigenous Australians}}

[[File:Bradshaw rock paintings.jpg|thumb|[[Aboriginal rock art]] in the [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|Kimberley]] region of Western Australia]]

Human habitation of the Australian continent is known to have begun at least 65,000 years ago,<ref name="Nunn2018">{{cite book|first=Patrick|last=Nunn|title=The Edge of Memory: Ancient Stories, Oral Tradition and the Post-Glacial World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4xaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT16|year=2018|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4729-4327-9|page=16}}</ref><ref name="FaganDurrani2018">{{cite book|first1=Brian M.|last1=Fagan|first2=Nadia|last2=Durrani|title=People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0NvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT250|year=2018|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-75764-5|pages=250–253}}</ref> with the migration of people by [[land bridge]]s and short sea-crossings from what is now [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name="Oppenheimer2013">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VQQvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP111|title=Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World|first=Stephen|last=Oppenheimer|date=2013|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-1-78033-753-1|pages=111–}}</ref> The [[Madjedbebe]] rock shelter in [[Arnhem Land]] is recognised as the oldest site showing the presence of humans in Australia.<ref name="Gilligan2018">{{cite book|first=Ian|last=Gilligan|title=Climate, Clothing, and Agriculture in Prehistory: Linking Evidence, Causes, and Effects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ux50DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA237|date= 2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-47008-7|page=237}}</ref> The oldest human remains found are the [[Lake Mungo remains]], which have been dated to around 41,000 years ago.<ref name="TunizGillespie2016">{{cite book|first1=Claudio|last1=Tuniz|first2=Richard|last2=Gillespie|first3=Cheryl|last3=Jones|title=The Bone Readers: Science and Politics in Human Origins Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WrJmDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-41888-9|page=43}}</ref><ref name="Castillo2015">{{cite book|first=Alicia|last=Castillo|title=Archaeological Dimension of World Heritage: From Prevention to Social Implications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jV64BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA41|date= 2015|publisher=Springer Science |isbn=978-1-4939-0283-5|page=41}}</ref> These people were the ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-spread-of-people-to-australia/|title=The spread of people to Australia|publisher=[[Australian Museum]]}}</ref> [[Aboriginal Australian]] culture is one of the oldest continual cultures on earth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au:80/journal/Aboriginal-Australians-the-oldest-culture-on-Earth.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518061422/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/Aboriginal-Australians-the-oldest-culture-on-Earth.htm|archivedate=18 May 2013|title=Aboriginal Australians the oldest culture on Earth|publisher=Australian Geographic|date=18 May 2013|access-date=18 December 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

At the time of first European contact, most Indigenous Australians were [[hunter-gatherer]]s with complex economies and societies.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Complex hunter-gatherers: a view from Australia|journal=Antiquity|volume=61|issue=232|pages=310–321|first=Elizabeth|last=Williams|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year=2015|doi=10.1017/S0003598X00052182}}</ref><ref name="SáenzEmbrick2015">{{cite book|first1=Rogelio|last1=Sáenz|first2=David G.|last2=Embrick|first3=Néstor P.|last3=Rodríguez|title=The International Handbook of the Demography of Race and Ethnicity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v_bLCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA602|date=3 June 2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-481-8891-8|pages=602–}}</ref> Recent archaeological finds suggest that a population of 750,000 could have been sustained.<ref name="pop_abs">[http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/bfc28642d31c215cca256b350010b3f4!OpenDocument 1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 2002] [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] 25 January 2002</ref><ref>also see other historians including Noel Butlin (1983) ''Our Original Aggression'' George Allen and Unwin, Sydney. {{ISBN|0-86861-223-5}}</ref> Indigenous Australians have an [[oral tradition|oral culture]] with spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the [[Dreamtime]].<ref name="Galván2014">{{cite book|first=Javier A.|last=Galván|title=They Do What? A Cultural Encyclopedia of Extraordinary and Exotic Customs from around the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e2RyBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83|year=2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-342-4|page=83}}</ref> The [[Torres Strait Islanders]], ethnically [[Melanesia]]n, obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas.<ref>{{cite web|title=Early Aussie Tattoos Match Rock Art|last=Viegas|first=Jennifer|publisher=Discovery News|date=3 July 2008|accessdate=30 March 2010|url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/07/03/australia-tattoos-art.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710014604/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/07/03/australia-tattoos-art.html|archivedate=10 July 2008}}</ref> The northern coasts and waters of Australia were [[Makassan contact with Australia|visited sporadically]] by [[Makassar people|Makassan]] fishermen from what is now Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=MacKnight|first=CC|year=1976|title=The Voyage to Marege: Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia|publisher=[[Melbourne University Press]]}}</ref>

=== European arrival ===

{{See also|European exploration of Australia}}

[[File:Captainjamescookportrait.jpg|left|upright|thumb|alt=A painting of Captain James Cook in uniform sitting down in front of a map|Portrait of Captain [[James Cook]], the first European to map the eastern coastline of Australia in 1770]]

The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the [[Dutch people|Dutch]].<ref name="BarberBarnes2013">{{cite book|first1=Peter|last1=Barber|first2=Katherine|last2=Barnes|author3=Dr Nigel Erskine|title=Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita To Australia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uZ_sAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA99|year=2013|publisher=National Library of Australia|isbn=978-0-642-27809-8|page=99}}</ref> The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the ''[[Duyfken]]'' captained by Dutch navigator, [[Willem Janszoon]].<ref name="SmithBurke2007">{{cite book|first1=Claire|last1=Smith|first2=Heather|last2=Burke|title=Digging It Up Down Under: A Practical Guide to Doing Archaeology in Australia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0HsRb_AY9jQC&pg=PA47|date= 2007|publisher=Springer Science|isbn=978-0-387-35263-3|page=47}}</ref> He sighted the coast of [[Cape York Peninsula]] in early 1606, and made landfall on 26 February at the [[Pennefather River]] near the modern town of [[Weipa, Queensland|Weipa]] on Cape York.<ref name="dhm233">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|p=233}}</ref> Later that year, Spanish explorer [[Luís Vaz de Torres]] sailed through, and navigated, [[Torres Strait]] islands.<ref>Brett Hilder (1980) ''The Voyage of Torres''. University of Queensland Press, St. Lucia, Queensland. {{ISBN|0-7022-1275-X}}</ref> The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent "[[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]]" during the 17th century, and although no attempt at settlement was made,<ref name="dhm233" /> [[Shipwrecks of Western Australia#Notable wrecks|a number of shipwrecks]] left men either stranded or, as in the case of the ''[[Batavia (1628 ship)|Batavia]]'' in 1629, marooned for mutiny and murder, thus becoming the first Europeans to permanently inhabit the continent.<ref>Davis, Russell Earls (2019). ''A Concise History of Western Australia''. Woodslane Press. {{ISBN|9781925868227}}, pp. 3–6.</ref> [[William Dampier]], an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688 (while serving as a crewman under pirate Captain [[John Read (pirate)|John Read]]<ref name="Baer – Pirates of the British Isles">{{cite book |last1=Baer |first1=Joel |title=Pirates of the British Isles |date=2005 |publisher=Tempus |location=Gloucestershire |isbn=978-0-7524-2304-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/piratesofbritish0000baer/page/66 66]–68 |url=https://archive.org/details/piratesofbritish0000baer |url-access=registration |accessdate=29 July 2019 |language=en}}</ref>) and again in 1699 on a return trip.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marsh|first=Lindsay|title=History of Australia : understanding what makes Australia the place it is today|year=2010|publisher=Ready-Ed Publications|location=Greenwood, W.A.|isbn=978-1-86397-798-2|page=9}}</ref> In 1770, [[James Cook]] sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain.<ref name="GoucherWalton2013">{{cite book|first1=Candice|last1=Goucher|first2=Linda|last2=Walton|title=World History: Journeys from Past to Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O_3fCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA427|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-08829-3|pages=427–28}}</ref>

With the loss of its American colonies in 1783, the British Government sent a fleet of ships, the "[[First Fleet]]", under the command of Captain [[Arthur Phillip]], to establish a new [[penal colony]] in New South Wales. A camp was set up and the [[Union flag]] raised at [[Sydney Cove]], [[Port Jackson]], on 26 January 1788,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/european-discovery-and-colonisation|title=European discovery and the colonisation of Australia|work=Australian Government: Culture Portal|publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia|quote=[The British] moved north to Port Jackson on 26 January 1788, landing at Camp Cove, known as 'cadi' to the Cadigal people. Governor Phillip carried instructions to establish the first British Colony in Australia. The First Fleet was under prepared for the task, and the soil around Sydney Cove was poor.|date=11 January 2008|accessdate=7 May 2010}}</ref><ref name="Egan2003">{{cite book|first=Ted|last=Egan|title=The Land Downunder|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ND3OqVdOwqoC&pg=PA25|year=2003|publisher=Grice Chapman Publishing|isbn=978-0-9545726-0-0|pages=25–26}}</ref> a date which later became Australia's national day, [[Australia Day]]. Most early [[convicts in Australia|convicts]] were [[penal transportation|transported]] for petty crimes and assigned as labourers or servants upon arrival. While the majority settled into colonial society once [[emancipist|emancipated]], convict rebellions and uprisings were also staged, but invariably suppressed under martial law. The 1808 [[Rum Rebellion]], the only successful armed takeover of government in Australia, instigated a two-year period of military rule.<ref>Matsuda, Matt K. (2012). ''Pacific Worlds: A History of Seas, Peoples, and Cultures''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|9780521887632}}, pp. 165–167.</ref>

The indigenous population declined for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Smallpox Through History |url=http://encarta.msn.com/media_701508643/Smallpox_Through_History.html |work=Encarta |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040618142015/http://encarta.msn.com/media_701508643/Smallpox_Through_History.html |archivedate=18 June 2004 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Thousands more died as a result of [[Australian frontier wars|frontier conflict]] with settlers.<ref>Attwood, Bain; Foster, Stephen Glynn (2003). ''Frontier Conflict: The Australian Experience''. National Museum of Australia. {{ISBN|978-1-876944-11-7}}, p. 89.</ref> A government policy of "assimilation" beginning with the ''[[Aboriginal Protection Act 1869]]'' resulted in the removal of many Aboriginal children from their families and communities—referred to as the [[Stolen Generations]]—a practice which also contributed to the decline in the indigenous population.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Attwood, Bain |title=Telling the truth about Aboriginal history |year=2005 |url=https://www.questia.com/read/109251500?title=Telling%20the%20Truth%20about%20Aboriginal%20History |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=978-1-74114-577-9 |location=Crows Nest, New South Wales}}</ref> As a result of the [[Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)|1967 referendum]], the Federal government's power to enact special laws with respect to a particular race was extended to enable the making of laws with respect to Aboriginals.<ref name="Edwards2004">{{cite book|first=William Howell|last=Edwards|title=An Introduction to Aboriginal Societies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kF-_Pe5WX6UC&pg=PA132|year=2004|publisher=Cengage Learning Australia|isbn=978-1-876633-89-9|pages=132–33}}</ref> Traditional ownership of land ("[[Native title in Australia|native title]]") was not recognised in law until 1992, when the [[High Court of Australia]] held in ''[[Mabo v Queensland (No 2)]]'' that the legal doctrine that Australia had been ''[[terra nullius]]'' ("land belonging to no one") did not apply to Australia at the time of British settlement.<ref name="Davison pp5-7, 402">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|pages=5–7, 402}}</ref>

=== Colonial expansion ===

The expansion of British control over other areas of the continent began in the early 19th century, initially confined to coastal regions. A settlement was established in [[Van Diemen's Land]] (present-day [[Tasmania]]) in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825.<ref name="Davison pp464-5">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|pages=464–65, 628–29}}</ref> In 1813, [[Gregory Blaxland]], [[William Lawson (explorer)|William Lawson]] and [[William Wentworth]] crossed the [[Blue Mountains (New South Wales)|Blue Mountains]] west of Sydney, opening the interior to European settlement.<ref>{{cite book |last=Conway |first=Jill |chapter-url=http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A010109b.htm?hilite=blaxland |title=Biography – Gregory Blaxland – Australian Dictionary of Biography |publisher=Adbonline.anu.edu.au |date= |accessdate=14 July 2011|chapter=Blaxland, Gregory (1778–1853) }}</ref> The British claim was extended to the whole Australian continent in 1827 when Major [[Edmund Lockyer]] established a settlement on [[King George Sound]] (modern-day [[Albany, Western Australia]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Grey |first=Jeffrey |title=A Military History of Australia |url=https://archive.org/details/militaryhistorya00grey_277 |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Port Melbourne |year=2008 |edition=Third |isbn=978-0-521-69791-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/militaryhistorya00grey_277/page/n43 28]–40}}</ref> The [[Swan River Colony]] was established in 1829, evolving into the largest Australian colony by area, [[Western Australia]].<ref name="Davison p678">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|p=678}}</ref> In accordance with population growth, separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales: [[South Australia]] in 1836, [[New Zealand]] in 1841, [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] in 1851, and [[Queensland]] in 1859.<ref name="Davison p464">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|p=464}}</ref> The [[Northern Territory]] was excised from South Australia in 1911.<ref name="Davison p470">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|p=470}}</ref> South Australia was founded as a "free province"—it was never a penal colony.<ref name="Davison p598">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|p=598}}</ref> Western Australia was also founded "free" but later accepted [[Convict era of Western Australia|transported convicts]], the last of which arrived in 1868, decades after transportation had ceased to the other colonies.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20051225154618/http://www.access.prov.vic.gov.au/public/PROVguides/PROVguide057/PROVguide057.jsp Convict Records] Public Record office of Victoria; [http://www.sro.wa.gov.au/collection/convict-records State Records Office of Western Australia] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530100051/http://www.sro.wa.gov.au/collection/convict-records |date=30 May 2012 }}</ref> By 1850, Europeans still had not entered large areas of the inland. Explorers remained ambitious to discover new lands for agriculture or answers to scientific enquiries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/explorers/ |title=Early explorers|work=Australia's Culture Portal |access-date=6 November 2013 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408183209/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/explorers/ |archivedate=8 April 2011}}</ref>

A [[Australian gold rushes|series of gold rushes]] beginning in the early 1850s led to an influx of new migrants from [[Chinese Australians|China]], North America and mainland Europe,<ref name="JuppJupp2001">{{cite book|first1=James|last1=Jupp|author2=Director Centre for Immigration and Multicultural Studies James Jupp|title=The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgoFxfSTfYAC&pg=PA35|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-80789-0|pages=35–36}}</ref> and also spurred outbreaks of [[bushranger|bushranging]] and civil unrest. The latter peaked in 1854 when [[Ballarat]] miners launched the [[Eureka Rebellion]] against gold license fees.<ref name="Davison pp227-9">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|pages=227–29}}</ref> Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained [[responsible government]], managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the [[British Empire]].<ref name="Davison p556">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|p=556}}</ref> The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs,<ref name="Davison p138-9679">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|pages=138–39}}</ref> defence,<ref>{{Cite news|title=Colonial Defence and Imperial Repudiation|url=http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=DSC18601113.2.12&l=mi&e=-------10--1----0-all|date=13 November 1860|issue=vol XVII, issue 1349|newspaper=Daily Southern Cross|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref> and international shipping.

=== Nationhood ===

[[File:Anzac2.jpg|left|alt=Photo of an ANZAC memorial with an elderly man playing a bugle. Rows of people are seated behind the memorial. Many small white crosses with red poppies have been stuck into the lawn in rows on either side of the memorial.|thumb|The [[Last Post]] is played at an [[Anzac Day]] ceremony in [[Port Melbourne, Victoria|Port Melbourne]], Victoria. Similar ceremonies are held in many suburbs and towns.]]

On 1 January 1901, [[Federation of Australia|federation of the colonies]] was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation and voting.<ref name="Davison pp243-4">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|pages=243–44}}</ref> After the [[1907 Imperial Conference]], Australia and the other self-governing British colonies were given the status of "[[dominion]]" within the British Empire.<ref name="dominionstatus">{{cite web|title=History of the Commonwealth|url=http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/commonwealth/history/|website=Commonwealth Network|publisher=Commonwealth of Nations|accessdate=16 February 2015}}</ref><ref>The name "the Commonwealth of Australia" is prescribed in section 3 (covering clause 3) of the [https://www.legislation.gov.au/Browse/ByTitle/Constitution/InForce#top Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (Imp)].</ref> The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the [[Australian Capital Territory]]) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra. [[Melbourne]] was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uninews.unimelb.edu.au/news/4332/|title=When Melbourne was Australia's capital city|last=Otto|first=Kristin|date=25 June – 9 July 2007|publisher=University of Melbourne|accessdate=29 March 2010|location=Melbourne, Victoria| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402083202/http://uninews.unimelb.edu.au/news/4332/| archivedate= 2 April 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911.<ref name="Souter2012">{{cite book|first=Gavin|last=Souter|title=Lion & Kangaroo: The Initiation of Australia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oQIBMD23lL0C&pg=PT141|year=2012|publisher=Xoum Publishing|isbn=978-1-922057-00-6|page=141}}</ref> Australia became the colonial ruler of the [[Territory of Papua]] (which had initially been annexed by Queensland in 1888) in 1902 and of the [[Territory of New Guinea]] (formerly [[German New Guinea]]) in 1920. The two were unified as the [[Territory of Papua and New Guinea]] in 1949 and gained independence from Australia in 1975.

In 1914, Australia joined Britain in fighting World War I, with support from both the outgoing [[Commonwealth Liberal Party]] and the incoming [[Australian Labor Party]].<ref>Macintyre, Stuart (1986) ''The Oxford History of Australia'', vol. 4, p. 142</ref><ref>C. Bean Ed. (1941). [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/ww1/1/index.asp Volume I – The Story of Anzac: the first phase] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828064649/http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/ww1/1/index.asp |date=28 August 2008 }}, First World War Official Histories, Eleventh Edition.</ref> Australians took part in many of the major battles fought on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/ww1.htm|title=First World War 1914–1918|publisher=Australian War Memorial|accessdate=5 December 2006|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207011059/http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/ww1.htm|archivedate=7 December 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> Of about 416,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tucker|first=Spencer|title=Encyclopedia of World War I|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, CA|year=2005|page=273|isbn=978-1-85109-420-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&pg=PA273}}</ref> Many Australians regard the defeat of the [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]] (ANZACs) at [[Gallipoli Campaign|Gallipoli]] as the birth of the nation—its first major military action.<ref>Macintyre, Stuart (2000). ''A Concise History of Australia''. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]], pp. 151–53, {{ISBN|0-521-62359-6}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Reed|first=Liz|title=Bigger than Gallipoli: war, history, and memory in Australia|year=2004|page=5|location=Crawley, WA |publisher=University of Western Australia |isbn=978-1-920694-19-7}}</ref> The [[Kokoda Track campaign]] is regarded by many as an analogous nation-defining event during World War II.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nelson|first=Hank|year=1997|title=Gallipoli, Kokoda and the Making of National Identity|journal=Journal of Australian Studies|volume=53|issue=1|pages=148–60|url=http://www.api-network.com/main/pdf/scholars/jas53_nelson.pdf}}</ref>

Britain's [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK. Australia [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942|adopted it]] in 1942,<ref name="Davison p609">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|p=609}}</ref> but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://foundingdocs.gov.au/item-did-25.html|title=Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 (Cth)|publisher=[[National Archives of Australia]]|accessdate=28 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comlaw.gov.au/comlaw/Legislation/ActCompilation1.nsf/0/AEA1CBA4FD61CFCFCA256F71005017A1/$file/StatuteWestminAdopt1942.pdf|title=Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942|publisher=ComLaw|accessdate=30 March 2010}}</ref> The shock of Britain's [[Battle of Singapore|defeat in Asia]] in 1942, followed soon after by the [[bombing of Darwin]] and [[Air raids on Australia, 1942–43|other Japanese attacks]], led to a widespread belief in Australia that [[Proposed Japanese invasion of Australia during World War II|an invasion was imminent]], and a shift towards the [[Australia–United States relations|United States as a new ally]] and protector.<ref name="Davison pp22-3">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|pages=22–23}}</ref> Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US, under the [[ANZUS]] treaty.<ref name="Davison p30">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|p=30}}</ref>

After World War II, Australia encouraged immigration from mainland Europe. Since the 1970s and following the abolition of the [[White Australia policy]], immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also promoted.<ref name="Davison pp338-6, 681-2">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|pages=338–39, 681–82}}</ref> As a result, Australia's demography, culture, and self-image were transformed.<ref name="Davison p442–379">{{Harvnb|Davison, Hirst and Macintyre|pages=442–43}}</ref> The ''[[Australia Act 1986]]'' severed the remaining constitutional ties between Australia and the UK.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item-did-32.html |title=Australia Act 1986 (Cth) |accessdate=25 July 2020 | work = Documenting a Democracy |publisher=Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House}}</ref> In a [[1999 Australian republic referendum|1999 referendum]], 55% of voters and a majority in every state rejected a proposal to become a [[republic]] with a president appointed by a two-thirds vote in both Houses of the Australian Parliament. There has been an increasing focus in foreign policy on ties with other [[Pacific Rim]] nations, while maintaining close ties with Australia's traditional allies and trading partners.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Pacific Basin since 1945: A history of the foreign relations of the Asian, Australasian, and American rim states and the Pacific islands|last=Thompson|first=Roger C.|isbn=978-0-582-02127-3|publisher=Longman|year=1994|url=https://archive.org/details/pacificbasinsinc0000thom}}</ref>

In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory).<ref name="sen">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/senatecomposition.htm|title=Senate Summary |publisher= [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |accessdate=23 April 2010| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100506235552/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/senatecomposition.htm| archivedate= 6 May 2010 | deadurl=no}}</ref> The [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] (the lower house) has 150 members elected from single-member electoral divisions, commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aec.gov.au/Voting/How_to_vote/Voting_HOR.htm|title=Voting HOR|publisher=[[Australian Electoral Commission]]|date=31 July 2007|accessdate=23 April 2010| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525053550/http://www.aec.gov.au/Voting/How_to_vote/Voting_HOR.htm| archivedate= 25 May 2010 | deadurl=no}}</ref> with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/state_tas.htm|title=Election Summary: Tasmania |publisher= [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |accessdate=23 April 2010| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100503053159/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/state_tas.htm| archivedate= 3 May 2010 | deadurl=no}}</ref> Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years, simultaneously; senators have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a [[double dissolution]].<ref name="sen" />

Australia's landmass of {{convert|7617930|km2|sqmi}}<ref name="Size">{{cite web|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/dimensions/compare.htm|title=Australia's Size Compared|publisher=[[Geoscience Australia]]|accessdate=19 May 2007| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070324194241/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/dimensions/compare.htm| archivedate = 24 March 2007}}</ref> is on the [[Indo-Australian Plate]]. Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans,{{refn|Australia describes the body of water south of its mainland as the [[Southern Ocean]], rather than the Indian Ocean as defined by the [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO). In 2000, a vote of IHO member nations defined the term "Southern Ocean" as applying only to the waters between [[Antarctica]] and [[60th parallel south|60 degrees south]] latitude.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://geography.about.com/od/learnabouttheearth/a/fifthocean.htm|last=Rosenberg|first=Matt|title=The New Fifth Ocean–The World's Newest Ocean&nbsp;– The Southern Ocean|publisher=About.com: Geography|date=20 August 2009|accessdate=5 April 2010}}</ref>|name = "Southern Ocean"|group = "N"}} it is separated from Asia by the [[Arafura Sea|Arafura]] and [[Timor Sea|Timor]] seas, with the [[Coral Sea]] lying off the Queensland coast, and the [[Tasman Sea]] lying between Australia and New Zealand. The world's smallest continent<ref name="NatlGeo">{{cite web|url=http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/places/continents/index.html|title=Continents: What is a Continent?|publisher=[[National Geographic Society]]|accessdate=22 August 2009}} "Most people recognize seven continents—Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia, from largest to smallest—although sometimes Europe and Asia are considered a single continent, Eurasia."</ref> and [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|sixth largest country by total area]],<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/43654/Australia|title=Australia|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=22 August 2009}} "Smallest continent and sixth largest country (in area) on Earth, lying between the Pacific and Indian oceans."</ref> Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the "island continent",<ref>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100424005732/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/islands.jsp|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/islands.jsp|publisher=[[Geoscience Australia]]|title=Islands|archivedate=24 April 2010}} "Being surrounded by ocean, Australia often is referred to as an island continent. As a continental landmass it is significantly larger than the many thousands of fringing islands&nbsp;..."</ref> and is sometimes considered the [[List of islands by area|world's largest island]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/island_continent.html|title=Australia in Brief: The island continent|publisher=[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]]|accessdate=29 May 2009| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604082917/http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/island_continent.html| archivedate= 4 June 2009 | deadurl=no}} "Mainland Australia, with an area of 7.69 million square kilometres, is the Earth's largest island but smallest continent."</ref> Australia has {{convert|34218|km|mi|0}} of coastline (excluding all offshore islands),<ref name="Coast">{{cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2006/publications/drs/indicator/142/index.html|title=State of the Environment 2006|publisher=Department of the Environment and Water Resources|accessdate=19 May 2007}}</ref> and claims an extensive [[Exclusive economic zone|Exclusive Economic Zone]] of {{convert|8148250|km2|sqmi}}. This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory.<ref>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703204723/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/dimensions/oceans-seas.jsp|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/dimensions/oceans-seas.jsp|publisher=[[Geoscience Australia]]|title=Oceans and Seas&nbsp;– Geoscience Australia|archivedate=3 July 2009}}</ref> Apart from [[Macquarie Island]], Australia lies between latitudes [[9th parallel south|9°]] and [[44th parallel south|44°S]], and longitudes [[112th meridian east|112°]] and [[154th meridian east|154°E]].

The [[Great Barrier Reef]], the world's largest coral reef,<ref name="UNEP">{{cite web|author=UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre|year=1980|title=Protected Areas and World Heritage&nbsp;– Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area|url=http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/gbrmp.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528210526/http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/gbrmp.html|archivedate=28 May 2007|publisher=[[Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts|Department of the Environment and Heritage]]|accessdate=19 May 2007}}</ref> lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over {{convert|2000|km|mi|-1}}. [[Mount Augustus National Park|Mount Augustus]], claimed to be the world's largest monolith,<ref name="Monolith">{{Cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/Western-Australia/Mount-Augustus/2005/02/17/1108500208314.html|title=Mount Augustus|publisher=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|date=17 February 2005 |accessdate=30 March 2010}}</ref> is located in Western Australia. At {{convert|2228|m|ft|0}}, [[Mount Kosciuszko]] on the [[Great Dividing Range]] is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland. Even taller are [[Mawson Peak]] (at {{convert|2745|m|ft|0|disp=or}}), on the remote Australian territory of [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands|Heard Island]], and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, [[Mount McClintock]] and [[Mount Menzies]], at {{convert|3492|m|ft|0}} and {{convert|3355|m|ft|0}} respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/highest-mountains.html|publisher=[[Geoscience Australia]]|title=Highest Mountains|accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref>

The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the [[Indian Ocean Dipole]] and the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]], which is correlated with periodic [[Drought in Australia|drought]], and the seasonal tropical low-pressure system that produces [[cyclone]]s in northern Australia.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/climate-watch/no-more-drought-its-a-permanent-dry/2007/09/06/1188783415754.html|title=No more drought: it's a 'permanent dry'|last=Kleinman|first=Rachel|date=6 September 2007|accessdate=30 March 2010|work=[[The Age]] | location=Melbourne}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.independent.co.uk/world/australasia/article2465960.ece|title=Australia's epic drought: The situation is grim|last=Marks|first=Kathy|work=[[The Independent]]|date=20 April 2007|accessdate=30 March 2010|location=London}}{{Dead link|date=July 2014}}</ref> These factors cause rainfall to vary markedly from year to year. Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical, predominantly summer-rainfall (monsoon) climate.<ref name="bomclim">{{cite web| title = Australia&nbsp;– Climate of Our Continent | publisher = Bureau of Meteorology |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/zones.htm | accessdate =17 June 2010|year=2010}}{{dead link|date=March 2015}}</ref> The [[Southwest corner of Western Australia|southwest corner of the country]] has a [[Mediterranean climate]].<ref>{{cite web| title = Climate of Western Australia | publisher = Bureau of Meteorology |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/ausclimwa.htm | accessdate =6 December 2009}}{{dead link|date=March 2015}}</ref> Much of the southeast (including Tasmania) is temperate.<ref name="bomclim" />

[[Forests of Australia|Australian forests]] are mostly made up of evergreen species, particularly [[eucalyptus]] trees in the less arid regions, [[Acacia|wattles]] replace them in drier regions and deserts as the most dominant species.<ref name="dfat">{{cite web|url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/flora_and_fauna.html|title=About Australia: Flora and fauna|accessdate=15 May 2010|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|date=May 2008|work=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade website}}{{dead link|date=March 2015}}</ref> Among well-known [[fauna of Australia|Australian animals]] are the [[monotreme]]s (the [[platypus]] and [[echidna]]); a host of [[marsupial]]s, including the [[kangaroo]], [[koala]], and [[wombat]], and birds such as the [[emu]] and the [[kookaburra]].<ref name="dfat" /> Australia is home to [[Animal attacks in Australia|many dangerous animals]] including some of the most venomous snakes in the world.<ref>"Snake Bite", ''[http://www.avru.org/compendium/biogs/A000084b.htm The Australian Venom Compendium]''.</ref> The [[dingo]] was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 [[Common Era|BCE]].<ref name="savolainen2004">{{cite pmid|15299143}}</ref> Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://uninews.unimelb.edu.au/view.php?articleID=170|title=Humans to blame for extinction of Australia's megafauna|publisher=The [[University of Melbourne]]|date=8 June 2001|accessdate=30 March 2010| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402065113/http://uninews.unimelb.edu.au/view.php?articleID=170| archivedate= 2 April 2010 | deadurl=no}}</ref> including the [[Australian megafauna]]; others have disappeared since European settlement, among them the [[thylacine]].<ref name="NW">{{cite web|url=http://www.naturalworlds.org/thylacine/index.htm|title=The Thylacine Museum – A Natural History of the Tasmanian Tiger|publisher=The Thylacine Museum|accessdate=14 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/ts-day/index.html|title=National Threatened Species Day|publisher=Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Government|year=2006|accessdate=21 November 2006| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209084616/http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/ts-day/index.html| archivedate= 9 December 2006 | deadurl=no}}</ref>

Ranked third in the [[Index of Economic Freedom]] (2010),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/index/Country/Australia|title=Australia|publisher=2010 Index of Economic Freedom|accessdate=30 March 2010| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330033949/http://www.heritage.org/index/Country/Australia| archivedate= 30 March 2010 | deadurl=no}}</ref> Australia is the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|world's twelfth largest economy]] and has the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|fifth highest per capita GDP]] (nominal) at $66,984. The country was ranked second in the United Nations 2011 [[Human Development Index]] and first in [[Legatum]]'s 2008 [[Legatum Prosperity Index|Prosperity Index]].<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Tables_reprint.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2010 – tables|year=2010|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=25 April 2011| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429045417/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Tables_reprint.pdf| archivedate= 29 April 2011 | deadurl=no}}</ref> All of Australia's major cities fare well in global comparative livability surveys;<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/02/06/1075854028808.html|title=Melbourne 'world's top city'|date=6 February 2004|work=The Age|accessdate=31 January 2009| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130144426/http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/02/06/1075854028808.html| archivedate= 30 January 2009 | deadurl=no}}</ref> Melbourne reached top spot for the fourth year in a row on ''[[The Economist]]'''s 2014 list of the [[World's most livable cities|world's most liveable cities]], followed by Adelaide, Sydney, and Perth in the fifth, seventh, and ninth places respectively.<ref>Dyett, Kathleen (19 August 2014). [http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-08-19/melbourne-worlds-most-liveable-city-for-the-fourth-year-running/5681014 "Melbourne named world's most liveable city for the fourth year running, beating Adelaide, Sydney and Perth"], [[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]. Retrieved 14 April 2015.</ref> Total government debt in Australia is about $190 billion<ref>{{cite web|author=Hughes, Tim |url=http://www.couriermail.com.au/money/money-matters/australian-dollar-continues-astronomical-rise-to-30-year-highs-as-us-dollar-euro-tank/story-fn3hskur-1226044717380 |title=Australian dollar continues astronomical rise to 30-year highs as US dollar, euro tank |publisher=Courier Mail |accessdate=26 April 2011}}</ref> – 20% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/australia/public_debt.html |title=Australia Public debt – Economy |publisher=Indexmundi.com |date=9 January 2012 |accessdate=15 April 2012}}</ref> Australia has among the highest house prices and some of the highest household-debt levels in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/thereporters/nickbryant/2011/04/australian_affordablity.html |title=Nick Bryant's Australia: Australian affordablity |publisher=BBC |accessdate=26 April 2011}}</ref>

An emphasis on exporting commodities rather than manufactured goods has underpinned a significant increase in Australia's [[terms of trade]] since the start of the 21st century, due to rising commodity prices. [[Balance of payments of Australia|Australia has a balance of payments]] that is more than 7% of GDP negative, and has had persistently large [[current account]] deficits for more than 50 years.<ref name="downwonder">{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/finance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8931798 |title=Might Australia's economic fortunes turn? |work=The Economist |date=29 March 2007 |accessdate=28 May 2010}}</ref> Australia has grown at an average annual rate of 3.6% for over 15 years, in comparison to the OECD annual average of 2.5%.<ref name="downwonder" /> Australia was the only advanced economy not to experience a recession due to the [[Late-2000s recession|global financial downturn]] in 2008–2009.<ref name="IMFOutlook2010">{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/ |title=World Economic Outlook (WEO) 2010 Rebalancing Growth |publisher=International Monetary Fund | accessdate=31 May 2012}}</ref> However, the economies of six of Australia's major trading partners have been in recession, which in turn has affected Australia, significantly hampering its economic growth in recent years.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/australasia/australia-slashes-immigration-as-recession-looms-1646048.html |title=Australia slashes immigration as recession looms |publisher=The Independent |date=16 March 2009 |accessdate=26 April 2011 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Mclennan |first=David |url=http://www.canberratimes.com.au/news/national/national/general/australian-economy-growing-as-new-recession-fears-fade/2130847.aspx |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011082911/http://www.canberratimes.com.au/news/national/national/general/australian-economy-growing-as-new-recession-fears-fade/2130847.aspx |archivedate=11 October 2011 |title=Australian economy growing as new recession fears fade |publisher=The Canberra Times |date=12 April 2011 |accessdate=26 April 2011}}</ref> From 2012 to early 2013, Australia's national economy grew, but some non-mining states and Australia's non-mining economy experienced a recession.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://theconversation.com/national-economy-grows-but-some-non-mining-states-in-recession-12670 |title=National economy grows but some non-mining states in recession |publisher=The Conversation |accessdate=22 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.couriermail.com.au/business/mining-punches-through-recession/story-fn7kjcme-1226320756339 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416091909/http://www.couriermail.com.au/business/mining-punches-through-recession/story-fn7kjcme-1226320756339 |archivedate=16 April 2012 |title=Mining punches through recession |publisher=Courier Mail|author=Syvret, Paul |date=7 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-04-23/non-mining-states-27going-backwards27/3967622 |title=Non-mining states going backwards|publisher=ABC |accessdate=22 March 2013}}</ref>

|accessdate=7 December 2010}}{{dead link|date=March 2015}}</ref> The indirect tax system was substantially changed in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10% [[Goods and Services Tax (Australia)|Goods and Services Tax]] (GST).<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/JATax/2000/23.html|author=Tran-Nam, Binh |title=<nowiki>The Implementation Costs of the GST in Australia: Concepts, Preliminary Estimates and Implications [2000</nowiki>&#93; JlATax 23; (2000) 3(5) |journal=Journal of Australian Taxation 331|publisher=[[Australasian Legal Information Institute]]|accessdate=23 April 2010}}</ref> In [[Taxation in Australia|Australia's tax system]], personal and company [[Income tax in Australia|income tax]] are the main sources of government revenue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.budget.gov.au/2008-09/content/fbo/html/part_1.htm|title=Part 1: Australian Government Budget Outcome|publisher=Budget 2008–09&nbsp;– Australian Government|accessdate=23 April 2010}}</ref>

In May 2012, there were 11,537,900&nbsp;people employed (either full- or part-time), with an unemployment rate of 5.1%.<ref name="ABSLabourForce">Australian Bureau of Statistics. 6202.0 – Labour Force, Australia, April 2012 [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/6202.0/]</ref> Youth unemployment (15–24) stood at 11.2%.<ref name="ABSLabourForce" /> Data released in mid-November 2013 showed that the number of welfare recipients had grown by 55%. In 2007 228,621 [[Newstart Allowance|Newstart unemployment allowance]] recipients were registered, a total that increased to 646,414 in March 2013.<ref>{{cite news|title=Call for end to welfare poverty|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/call-for-end-to-welfare-poverty/story-fn59niix-1226758553935?from=public_rss&utm_source=The%20Australian&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=editorial&net_sub_uid=44933799#|accessdate=15 November 2013|newspaper=The Australian|date=13 November 2013|author=Patricia Karvelas}}</ref> According to the Graduate Careers Survey, full-time employment for newly qualified professionals from various occupations has declined since 2011 but it increases for graduates three years after graduation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.graduatecareers.com.au/research/surveys/australiangraduatesurvey|title=Australian Graduate Survey|work=graduatecareers.com.au}}</ref><ref>http://www.graduatecareers.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/GCA_GradStats_2014.pdf</ref>

Australia's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/3105.0.65.0012006?OpenDocument |title=3105.0.65.001—Australian Historical Population Statistics, 2006 |accessdate=18 September 2007 |date=23 May 2006 |format=[[Microsoft Excel|XLS]] |publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] |quote=Australian population: (1919) 5,080,912; (2006) 20,209,993 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070908212308/http://abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/3105.0.65.0012006?OpenDocument| archivedate= 8 September 2007 | deadurl=no}}</ref> much of this increase from [[Immigration to Australia|immigration]]. Following World War II and through to 2000, almost 5.9&nbsp;million of the total population settled in the country as new immigrants, meaning that nearly two out of every seven Australians were born in another country.<ref name="Immigration">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2698.htm|title=Background note: Australia|publisher=US Department of State|accessdate=19 May 2007| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070520140730/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2698.htm| archivedate= 20 May 2007 | deadurl=no}}</ref> Most immigrants are skilled,<ref name="immig">{{cite web|url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/20planning.htm |title=Fact Sheet 20&nbsp;– Migration Program Planning Levels |accessdate=17 June 2010 |date=11 August 2009 |publisher=Department of Immigration and Citizenship| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507054151/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/20planning.htm| archivedate= 7 May 2010 | deadurl=no}}</ref> but the immigration quota includes categories for family members and [[refugee]]s.<ref name="immig" /> By 2050, Australia's population is currently projected to reach around 42 million.<ref>"[http://www.news.com.au/national/australias-population-to-grow-to-42m-by-2050-modelling-shows/story-e6frfkvr-1225854742172 Australia's population to grow to 42 million by 2050, modelling shows]". News.com.au. 17 April 2010</ref> Nevertheless, its [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|population density]], 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, remains among the lowest in the world.<ref name="worldatlas1" /> As such, Australians have more living space per person than the inhabitants of any other nation.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.switzer.com.au/business-news/news-stories/australian-homes-are-biggest-in-the-world2/ | title=Australian homes are biggest in the world | publisher=''Switzer Daily'' | date=23 August 2011 | accessdate=5 November 2014}}</ref>

In 2011, 24.6% of Australians were born elsewhere and 43.1% of people had at least one overseas-born parent;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abs.gov.au/websitedbs/censushome.nsf/home/CO-59?opendocument&navpos=620|title=2011 Census reveals one in four Australians is born overseas|publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|date=21 June 2012|accessdate=21 June 2012}}</ref> the five largest immigrant groups were those from the [[Anglo-Celtic Australian|United Kingdom]], New Zealand, China, India, and [[Vietnam]].<ref name="census2011" /> Following the abolition of the [[White Australia policy]] in 1973, numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of [[multiculturalism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/06evolution.htm|title=The Evolution of Australia's Multicultural Policy|accessdate=18 September 2007|year=2005|publisher=Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060219130703/http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/06evolution.htm|archivedate=19 February 2006}}</ref> In 2005–06, more than 131,000&nbsp;people emigrated to Australia, mainly from Asia and Oceania.<ref>{{cite web

|date=27 February 2004|accessdate=24 April 2009|publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515231152/http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/Previousproducts/1301.0Feature%20Article52004?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=1301.0&issue=2004&num=&view=| archivedate= 15 May 2009 | deadurl=no}}</ref> The increase is partly due to many people with Indigenous heritage previously having been overlooked by the census due to undercount and cases where their Indigenous status had not been recorded on the form. Indigenous Australians experience higher than average rates of imprisonment and unemployment, lower levels of education, and life expectancies for males and females that are, respectively, 11 and 17 years lower than those of non-indigenous Australians.<ref name="Year Book 2005" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/life-gap-figures-not-black-and-white/story-e6frg6nf-1111118141529 |title=Life gap figures not black and white |author=Lunn, Stephen |work=[[The Australian]] |date=26 November 2008 |accessdate=7 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.smh.com.au/national/indigenous-health-gap-closes-by-five-years-20090409-a27x.html |title=Indigenous health gap closes by five years |author=Gibson, Joel |work= [[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |date=10 April 2009 |accessdate=7 December 2010}}</ref><!-- The Australian and SMH refs should be replaced with the finalised ABS estimate when this becomes available. --> Some remote Indigenous communities have been described as having "[[failed state]]"-like conditions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/australia-hides-a-failed-state/2006/12/07/1165081088385.html |title=Australia hides a 'failed state' |author=Grattan, Michelle |publisher=[[The Age]] |location=Melbourne |date=8 December 2006 |accessdate=17 October 2008 |authorlink=Michelle Grattan| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119005946/http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/australia-hides-a-failed-state/2006/12/07/1165081088385.html| archivedate= 19 November 2008 | deadurl=no}}</ref>

Although Australia has no official language, English has always been entrenched as the ''[[de facto]]'' national language.<ref name="language">{{cite web|url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/confer/04/speech18b.htm|title=Pluralist Nations: Pluralist Language Policies?|work=1995 Global Cultural Diversity Conference Proceedings, Sydney|publisher=[[Department of Immigration and Citizenship]]|accessdate=11 January 2009| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220020910/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/confer/04/speech18b.htm| archivedate= 20 December 2008 | deadurl=no}} "English has no de jure status but it is so entrenched as the common language that it is de facto the official language as well as the national language."</ref> [[Australian English]] is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nma.gov.au/libraries/attachments/exhibitions/vocabulary_of_australian_english/files/5471/Vocabulary%20of%20Australian%20English.pdf|title=The Vocabulary Of Australian English|last=Moore|first=Bruce|publisher=National Museum of Australia|accessdate=5 April 2010}}</ref> and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling.<ref name="Fourth Edition 2005">"The Macquarie Dictionary", Fourth Edition. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd, 2005.</ref> [[General Australian]] serves as the standard dialect. According to the 2011 census, English is the only language spoken in the home for close to 81% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] (1.7%), [[Italian language|Italian]] (1.5%), [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (1.4%), [[Cantonese]] (1.3%), [[Greek language|Greek]] (1.3%), and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] (1.2%);<ref name="census2011" /> a considerable proportion of first- and second-generation migrants are bilingual. A 2010–2011 study by the Australia Early Development Index found the most common language spoken by children after English was Arabic, followed by Vietnamese, Greek, Chinese, and Hindi.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.rch.org.au/aedi/media/Snapshot_of_Early_Childhood_DevelopmentinAustralia_AEDI_National_Report.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408162508/http://www.rch.org.au/aedi/media/Snapshot_of_Early_Childhood_DevelopmentinAustralia_AEDI_National_Report.pdf |archivedate=8 April 2011 |title=A Snapshot of Early Childhood Development in Australia| page= 8 |date=December 2009|isbn=978-0-9807246-0-8 |publisher=Australian Government Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations}}</ref><ref>[[Agence France-Presse]]/[[Jiji Press]], "Arabic Australia's second language", ''[[The Japan Times]]'', 16 April 2011, p. 4.</ref>

Over 250 [[Indigenous Australian languages]] are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact, of which less than 20 are still in daily use by all age groups.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2011/08/a-mission-to-save-indigenous-languages| title=A mission to save indigenous languages| publisher=Australian Geographic|accessdate=16 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="nilsr" /> About 110 others are spoken exclusively by older people.<ref name="nilsr">{{cite web |url=http://arts.gov.au/sites/default/files/pdfs/nils-report-2005.pdf |title=National Indigenous Languages Survey Report 2005 |publisher=Department of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts |accessdate=5 September 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709141342/http://www.arts.gov.au/indigenous/national_indigenous_languages_survey_report_2005 <!-- Added by H3llBot --> |archivedate=9 July 2009}}</ref> At the time of the 2006 census, 52,000 Indigenous Australians, representing 12% of the Indigenous population, reported that they spoke an Indigenous language at home.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4713.0 |title=4713.0&nbsp;– Population Characteristics, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, 2006 |last=Australian Bureau of Statistics |date=4 May 2010 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics |language=Canberra |accessdate=7 December 2010}}</ref> Australia has a [[sign language]] known as [[Auslan]], which is the main language of about 5,500 deaf people.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?action=404&documentproductno=0&documenttype=Details&order=1&tabname=Details&areacode=0&issue=2006&producttype=Census%20Tables&javascript=true&textversion=false&navmapdisplayed=true&breadcrumb=POTLD&&collection=Census&period=2006&productlabel=Language%20Spoken%20at%20Home%20(full%20classification%20list)%20by%20Sex&producttype=Census%20Tables&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&topic=Language& |title=20680-Language Spoken at Home (full classification list) by Sex&nbsp;– Australia |last=Australian Bureau of Statistics |date=27 June 2007 |work=2006 Census Tables : Australia |location=Canberra |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics |accessdate=7 December 2010}}</ref>

Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in 2003.<ref name="cialittab">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html#136|title=Literacy|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|accessdate=10 October 2013}}</ref> However, a 2011–12 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that Tasmania has a literacy and numeracy rate of only 50%.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/backgroundbriefing/2013-09-22/4962902|title=A literacy deficit|work=abc.net.au|date=22 September 2013|accessdate=10 October 2013}}</ref> In the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]], Australia regularly scores among the top five of thirty major developed countries (member countries of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]]). [[Catholic education in Australia|Catholic education]] accounts for the largest non-government sector.

The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university.<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/44/35/37376068.pdf Education at a Glance 2006]. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</ref> There is a state-based system of vocational training, known as [[Technical and further education|TAFE]], and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.australianapprenticeships.gov.au/about/default.asp |title=About Australian Apprenticeships |publisher=Australian Government |accessdate=23 April 2010 |archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20091111234035/http://www.australianapprenticeships.gov.au/about/default.asp |archivedate=11 November 2009}}</ref> About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications,<ref name="Year Book 2005" /> and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries. The ratio of international to local students in tertiary education in Australia is the highest in the OECD countries.<ref>[http://www.ecs.org/html/offsite.asp?document=http%3A%2F%2Fwww%2Eoecd%2Eorg%2Fdataoecd%2F20%2F25%2F35345692%2Epdf Education at Glance 2005]{{Dead link|date=July 2014}} by OECD: Percentage of foreign students in tertiary education.</ref>

Total expenditure on health (including private sector spending) is around 9.8% of GDP.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/healthcare.html |title=Health care in Australia |year=2008 |work=About Australia |publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100404084746/http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/healthcare.html <!-- Added by H3llBot --> |archivedate=4 April 2010}}</ref> Australia introduced [[universal health care]] in 1975.<ref name="medicbrief">{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/library/intguide/SP/medicare.htm |title=Medicare&nbsp;– Background Brief |last=Biggs |first=Amanda |date=29 October 2004 |work=Parliament of Australia: Parliamentary Library |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |accessdate=16 April 2010 |location=Canberra, ACT| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414012007/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/intguide/SP/medicare.htm| archivedate= 14 April 2010 | deadurl=no}}</ref> Known as [[Medicare (Australia)|Medicare]], it is now nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the [[Medicare levy]], currently set at 1.5%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ato.gov.au/individuals/content.asp?doc=/content/17482.htm&pc=001/002/030/003/001&mnu=&mfp=&st=&cy=1 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610171946/http://www.ato.gov.au/individuals/content.asp?doc=/content/17482.htm&pc=001/002/030/003/001&mnu=&mfp=&st=&cy=1 |archivedate=10 June 2008 |title=What is the Medicare levy? |accessdate=17 April 2010 |author=Australian Taxation Office |work=Australian Taxation Office website |publisher=Australian Government |date=19 June 2007}}</ref> The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the [[Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme]] (subsidising the costs of medicines) and general practice.<ref name="medicbrief" />

Since 1788, the basis of Australian culture has been strongly influenced by [[Anglo-Celtic]] [[Western culture]].<ref>[[#Jupp|Jupp]], pp. 796–802.</ref><ref>[[#Teo|Teo and White]], pp. 118–20.</ref> Distinctive cultural features have also arisen from Australia's natural environment and Indigenous cultures.<ref name="bush">Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, pp. 98–99.</ref><ref>[[#Teo|Teo and White]], pp. 125–27.</ref> Since the mid-20th century, [[Culture of the United States|American popular culture]] has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema.<ref name="tw">[[#Teo|Teo and White]], pp. 121–23.</ref> Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations.<ref name="tw" /><ref>[[#Jupp|Jupp]], pp. 808–12, 74–77.</ref>

The [[rock art]] of Australia's Indigenous peoples is the oldest and richest in the world, dating as far back as 60,000 years and spread across hundreds of thousands of sites.<ref>Taçon, Paul S. C. (2001). "Australia". In Whitely, David S.. ''Handbook of Rock Art Research''. [[Rowman & Littlefield]]. pp. 531–575. ISBN 978-0-7425025-6-7</ref> Traditional designs, patterns and stories infuse [[contemporary Indigenous Australian art]], "the last great art movement of the 20th century";<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/arts/06iht-aborigine.html |title=Powerful growth of Aboriginal art |last=Henly |first=Susan Gough |date=6 November 2005 |work=The New York Times }}</ref> its exponents include [[Emily Kame Kngwarreye]].<ref>Smith, Terry (1996) "Kngwarreye Woman, Abstract Painter", p. 24 in ''Emily Kngwarreye – Paintings'', North Ryde NSW: Craftsman House / G + B Arts International. ISBN 90-5703-681-9.</ref> During the first century of European settlement, colonial artists, trained in Europe, showed a fascination with the unfamiliar land.<ref name="art" /> The [[realism (arts)|naturalistic]], sun-filled works of [[Arthur Streeton]], [[Tom Roberts]] and others associated with the 19th-century [[Heidelberg School]]—the first "distinctively Australian" movement in Western art—gave expression to a burgeoning Australian nationalism in the lead-up to Federation.<ref name="art">[http://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/discover-art/learn-more/australian-art/ Australian art], [[Art Gallery of New South Wales]]. Retrieved 27 August 2014.</ref> While the school remained influential into the new century, [[modern art|modernists]] such as [[Margaret Preston]], and, later, [[Sidney Nolan]] and [[Arthur Boyd]], explored new artistic trends.<ref name="art" /> The landscape remained a central subject matter for [[Fred Williams]], [[Brett Whiteley]] and other post-World War II artists whose works, eclectic in style yet uniquely Australian, moved between the [[figurative art|figurative]] and the [[abstract art|abstract]].<ref name="art" /><ref>[http://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/exhibitions/brett-whiteley-nature/ Brett Whiteley: Nature], Art Gallery of New South Wales. Retrieved 15 April 2015.</ref> The [[National Gallery of Australia]] and state galleries maintain collections of Australian and international art.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Artists & Galleries of Australia|publisher=Craftsman House|location=Roseville, Vic.|year=1990|isbn=976-8097-02-7|author=Germaine, Max|pages=756–58, 796–97, 809–10, 814–15, 819–20, 826–27, 829–30}}</ref> Australia has one of the world's highest attendances of art galleries and museums per head of population.<ref>Ron Radford, Director of the [[National Gallery of Australia]], quoted in {{cite news|last=Blake|first=Elissa|title=The art of persuasion|newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] (Spectrum section)|date=4–5 February 2012}}</ref>

Australia has two public broadcasters (the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] and the multicultural [[Special Broadcasting Service]]), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services,<ref name="bbc">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1250188.stm|work=BBC News|title=Country profile: Australia|date=13 October 2009|accessdate=7 April 2010}}</ref> and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has at least one daily newspaper,<ref name="bbc" /> and there are two national daily newspapers, ''[[The Australian]]'' and ''[[The Australian Financial Review]]''.<ref name="bbc" /> In 2010, [[Reporters Without Borders]] placed Australia 18th on a list of 178 countries ranked by [[freedom of the press|press freedom]], behind New Zealand (8th) but ahead of the United Kingdom (19th) and United States (20th).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2010,1034.html|title=Press Freedom Index 2010|publisher=[[Reporters Without Borders]] |author=Reporters Without Borders |year=2010|accessdate=22 November 2010| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124050702/http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2010,1034.html| archivedate= 24 November 2010 | deadurl=no}}</ref> This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia;<ref>Barr, Trevor. "[http://www.australianpolitics.com/issues/media-ownership/1999ownership.shtml Media Ownership in Australia]", australianpolitics.com. Retrieved 2 January 2008.</ref> most print media are under the control of [[News Corporation]] and [[Fairfax Media]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aph.gov.au/library/INTGUIDE/SP/Media_Regulation.htm|title=Media Ownership Regulation in Australia|publisher=[[Parliament of Australia]] |author=Gardiner-Garden, John and Chowns, Jonathan |date=30 May 2006| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328020533/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/intguide/SP/Media_Regulation.htm| archivedate= 28 March 2010 | deadurl=no}}</ref>

Most Indigenous Australian tribal groups subsisted on a simple [[hunter-gatherer diet]] of native fauna and flora, otherwise called [[bushfood|bush tucker]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/bushtucker/ |title=Bush Tucker Plants, or Bush Food |publisher=Teachers.ash.org.au |accessdate=26 April 2011| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094258/http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/bushtucker/| archivedate= 11 May 2011 | deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theepicentre.com/Australia/aufood2.html |title=Bush Tucker |publisher=Theepicentre.com |accessdate=26 April 2011| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513084614/http://www.theepicentre.com/Australia/aufood2.html| archivedate= 13 May 2011 | deadurl=no}}</ref> The first settlers introduced [[British cuisine|British food]] to the continent, much of which is now considered typical Australian food, such as the [[Sunday roast]].<ref name="food">{{cite web|url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/foodanddrink/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326134155/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/foodanddrink/|archivedate=26 March 2010|title=Australian food and drink|publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts |date=23 September 2008}}</ref><ref name="f2">{{cite web|url=http://www.sbs.com.au/food/cuisineindex/RecipeByCuisineMain/383|title=Modern Australian recipes and Modern Australian cuisine|publisher=[[Special Broadcasting Service]]|accessdate=23 April 2010| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100503111747/http://www.sbs.com.au/food/cuisineindex/RecipeByCuisineMain/383| archivedate= 3 May 2010 | deadurl=no}}</ref> Multicultural immigration transformed Australian cuisine; post-World War II European migrants, particularly from the Mediterranean, helped to build a thriving Australian [[coffee culture]], and the influence of [[Culture of Asia|Asian cultures]] has led to Australian variants of their staple foods, such as the [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]]-inspired [[dim sim]] and [[Chiko Roll]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Jonsen|first=Helen|title=Kangaroo's Comments and Wallaby's Words: The Aussie Word Book|publisher=[[Hippocrene Books]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-7818-0737-1|page=23}}</ref> [[Vegemite]], [[pavlova]], [[lamington]]s and [[meat pie (Australia and New Zealand)|meat pie]]s are regarded as iconic Australian foods.<ref>{{cite book|last=Santich|first=Barbara|title=Bold Palates: Australia's Gastronomic Heritage|publisher=[[Wakefield Press]]|year=2012|isbn=978-1-74305-094-1|page=290}}</ref> [[Australian wine]] is produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country.