Iran

Iran, (, pronounced []), officially the  of Iran (, pronounced []), formerly known internationally as , is a n country located in the geographical territories of the, , ,  and  the. is the state religion and the official language.

The 18th largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,000 square kilometers, Iran is about the size of, , and  combined, or a bit smaller than the US state of  (1,717,855 km²). It has a population of over seventy million people.

Iran borders, , and to the north;  and  to the east; and  and  to the west. In addition, it borders the, an important oil-producing area, , and the.

The, based on the 1979 , comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The highest state authority is, currently.

Iran is one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BCE,  and throughout history, Iran has been of  importance because of its central location in. Iran is a founding member of the, , , , , and seeks to join the.

It occupies an important position in international energy security and world economy due to its large reserves of and. The country is known for its independent stances in the global arena. Iran is currently a. The name Iran is a of Aryan, and literally means "Land of the ".

Etymology
The term Iran (ایران) in modern Persian derives from the term Aryānām first attested in   tradition. As in 's lifetime, differing dates for have been proposed; scholarly consensus floats around 1000 BCE (roughly contemporary to the  period of ). Ariya- and Airiia- are also attested as an ethnic designator in inscriptions. The term Ērān from Ērān,  &#700;yr&#700;n, is found at the inscription that accompanies the investiture relief of  at. In this inscription, the king's appellation in Middle Persian contains the term ērān (Pahlavi: &#700;ry&#700;n), while in the inscription that accompanies it, Iran is mentioned as aryān. In Ardashir's time ērān retained this meaning, denoting the people rather than the state.

Notwithstanding this inscriptional use of ērān to refer to the, the use of ērān to refer to the empire is also attested by the early Sassanid period. An inscription of, Ardashir's son and immediate successor, apparently "includes in Ērān regions such as and the  which were not inhabited predominantly by Iranians." In inscriptions the high priest includes the same regions in his list of provinces of the antonymic Anērān. Both ērān and aryān comes from the term Aryānām, (Land) of the (Iranian) Aryas. The word and concept of is present in the name of the country Iran (Lit. Land of the Aryans) where Iran (Ērān), is modern-Persian of the word Aryānā.

Since the of 1979, the official name of the country is "Islamic Republic of Iran." For the pre-1935 use of "Persia" as the western name for Iran, see.

Early history and the Median and Achaemenian Empires (3200 BCE – 330 BCE)
Dozens of sites across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements, centuries before the earliest civilizations arose in nearby.

The culture probably originated in. The is strongly suggested as the candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture ca. 2000 BCE. s first emerged following the separation of, and are traced to the , a culture of. , tribes arrived in the  in the third and second  BCE, probably in more than one wave of emigration. Further separation (due to migration) of Proto-Iranians, into an "Eastern" and a "Western" group, is attested in the form of, an Eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of. And, which appears primarily in the inscriptions, clay tablets, seals of the Achaemenid era (c. 600 BCE to 300 BCE). Examples of Old Persian have been found in present-day Iran,, and.

Nomadic Iranian tribes settled across the Iranian plateau and by the 1st millennium BCE,, , ns and ns populated the western part, while , and  populated the steppes north of the. The Iranian and  began to settle on the eastern edge, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern  and in to what is now. Others, such as the n tribes spread as far west as the and as far east as.

The establishing of the (728–550 BCE) culminated in the first Iranian Empire. The Medes are credited with the foundation of Iran as a nation and empire, the largest of its day, until established a unified empire of the Medes and  leading to the  (648–330 BCE), and further unification between peoples and cultures. After Cyrus's death, his son Cambyses continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in Egypt. A power struggle followed Cambyses' death and, despite his tenuous connection to the royal line, Darius was declared king (ruled 522–486 BCE). He was to be arguably the greatest of the ancient Persian rulers.



Under and, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest and most powerful empire in human history up until that point. Their greatest achievement was the empire itself. The Persian Empire was "a paragon of religious and cultural ". The borders of the stretched from the  and  Rivers in the East to the Mediterranean Sea in the West, extending through  (modern day Turkey) and Egypt.

In 499BCE, Athens lent support to a revolt by one of the cities along the coast of Anatolia,, ruled by a Greek tyrant named , which culminated in the sacking and burning of the city of. This event escalated into what is known as the, during which Persia conquered Thrace, Macedonia, then most of the Greek mainland , and razed Athens in 480BCE. However Greek victories on land at and, and at sea at  and , forced Persia to withdraw. Fighting continued across the Eastern Mediterranean area from to  until the  in 449BCE.

The rules and ethics emanating from Zorasters teachings were strictly followed by the Achaemenids who introduced and adopted policies based on, and banning of. Zoroastrianism spread unimposed during the time of the Achaemenids and through contacts with the exiled people in  freed by Cyrus, Zoroastrian concepts further propagated and influenced into other. The marked by,  and  also came about during the Achaemenid period while their contacts with Persia and the Near East abounded. The peace, tranquility, security and prosperity that were afforded to the people of the and  proved to be a rare historical occurrence, an unparalleled period where commerce prospered, and the standard of living for all people of the region improved. — referred to as "the accursed" in the Middle Persian  — invaded Achaemenid territory in 334 BCE, defeating the last Achaemenid Emperor  at the  in 333 BCE. He left the annexed territory in 328-327.In each of the former Achaemenid territories he installed his own officers as caretakers, which led to friction and ultimately to the after Alexander's death. A reunification would not occur until 700 years later, under the Sassanids (see below). Unlike the c Seleucids and the succeeding Arsacids, who used a, the Sassanids — like the Achaemenids — had a system of governors (MP: shahrab) personally appointed by the Emperor and directed by the central government. The new empire led by Alexander became the first, of other, later, foreign ruled Iranian empires that came to promote a society.

Concerns have been raised regarding the current governmental regime to protect the heritage of this oldest part of Iran's history; for example, a government road project was allowed to destroy approximately 60 percent of Arjan-Lordegan-Esphahan, one of Iran's ancient large settlements dating to approximately 1000.

Third Iranian Empire: Parthian Empire (248 BCE – 224 CE)


was led by the Arsacid dynasty (اشکانیان Ashkâniân), who reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau, after defeating the, beginning in the late third century BCE, and intermittently controlled  between ca 150 BCE and 224 CE. These were the third native dynasty of ancient Iran and lasted five centuries. After the conquests of, , and , the Parthians had to organize their empire. The former elites of these countries were, and the new rulers had to adapt to their customs if they wanted their rule to last. As a result, the cities retained their ancient rights and civil administrations remained more or less undisturbed. An interesting detail is coinage: legends were written in the Greek alphabet, a practice that continued until the 2nd century CE, when local knowledge of the language was in decline and few people knew how to read or write the. Parthia was the arch-enemy of the in the east, limiting Rome's expansion beyond  (central ). By using a heavily-armed and armored cavalry, and lightly armed but highly-mobile, the Parthians "held their own against Rome for almost 300 years". Rome's acclaimed general led a disastrous campaign against the Parthians in 36 BCE in which he lost 32,000 men. By the time of Roman emperor, Rome and Parthia were settling some of their differences through diplomacy. By this time, Parthia had acquired an assortment of golden eagles, the cherished, captured from , and , who suffered "a disastrous defeat" at in 53 BCE.

During Parthian, and later era, trade on the  was a significant factor in the development of the great s of, , , , , and , and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world. Parthian remains display classically Greek influences in some instances and retain their oriental mode in others, a clear expression of "the cultural diversity that characterized Parthian art and life". The Parthians were such as that of, which later on "influenced European ".

Fourth Iranian Empire: Sassanid Empire (224–651 CE)
The end of the Parthian Empire came in 224 CE, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by, one of the empire's vassals. then went on to create the Sassanid Empire. Soon he started reforming the country both economically and militarily.

The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, referring to it as Erânshahr or Iranshahr, , "Dominion of the Aryans", i.e. of ), with their capital at.

During their reign, Sassanid battles with the caused such pessimism in  that the historian  wrote: Here was a source of great fear to us. So formidable does the Sassanid king seem to our eastern legions, that some are liable to go over to him, and others are unwilling to fight at all.

The Romans suffered repeated losses particularly by, , and. Under the Sassanids, Persia, the , , and greatly flourished, and centers such as the  and  became world renowned centers of science and scholarship.

After roughly six hundred years of confrontation and rivalry with the, raids from the Arab peninsula began attacking the Sassanin and frontiers in which a war-exhausted Persia was defeated in the , paving way for the.

From the fall of the Sassanid Dynasty to the Safavid Empire (652–1501 CE)
After the, Persia was annexed into the. But the was to yield deep transformations within the cultural, scientific, and political structure of Iran's society: The blossoming of, ,  and  became major elements of the newly-forming Muslim civilization. Inheriting a heritage of thousands of years of civilization, and being at the "crossroads of the major cultural highways", contributed to Persia emerging as what culminated into the "".

It was the Persian general, who expelled the s from and helped the  caliphs to conquer. The caliphs frequently chose their "" (viziers) among Persians, and Persian governors acquired a certain amount of local autonomy. Thus in 822 CE, the governor of Khorasan,, proclaimed his independence and founded a new Persian dynasty of. And by the era, Persia's efforts to regain its independence had been well solidified.

Attempts of thus never succeeded in Iran, and movements such as the  became catalysts for Persians to regain their independence in their relations with the Arab invaders. The cultural revival of the post- period led to a resurfacing of n national identity. The resulting cultural movement reached its peak during the and. The most notable effect of the movement was the continuation of the, the language of the and the official language of Iran to the present day. , Iran's greatest epic poet, is regarded today as the most important figure in maintaining the Persian language.

Before the conquest, Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts which originated in ancient roots, were considerably influenced by s teachings. The Persians had been mainly, however, there were also large and thriving and  communities. The newly converted Iranian Muslims projected many of their own Persian moral and ethical values that predates the advent of, while recognizing Islam as their religion and the prophet's son in law, , as an enduring symbol of justice. After an interval of silence Persians remained Persians and Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam. ,, and religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of scientific and cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in made a significant contribution. Persian Islam Islam-i Ajam was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the, first in and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called , as well as to  and beyond. The brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of. after the Islamic conquest, is characterized by different interactions with the Old, the and with the development of. The and the  are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Persia.

The movement continued well into the eleventh century, when founded a vast empire, with its capital at  and. Their successors, the, asserted their domination from the to. As with their predecessors, the of the empire was in the hands of Persian, who founded the. During this period, vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science during.

In 1218, the eastern provinces of  and  suffered a devastating  by. During this period more than half of Persia's population were killed, turning the streets of Persian cities like into "rivers of blood", as the severed heads of men, women, and children were "neatly stacked into carefully constructed pyramids around which the carcasses of the city's dogs and cats were placed". Between 1220 and 1260, the total population of Persia may had dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass and. In a letter to King, , one of the 's grandsons, alone took responsibility for 200,000 deaths in his raids of Persia and the Caliphate. He was followed by yet another conqueror,, who established his capital in.

The waves of devastation prevented many cities such as from reaching their pre-invasion population levels until the, eight centuries later. But both, , and their successors soon came to adopt the ways and customs of that which they had conquered, choosing to surround themselves with a culture that was distinctively Persian.

The birth of modern Iran: Rise of the Safavid Empire (1501–1920)
Persia's first encompassing ic state was established under the in 1501 by. The Safavid dynasty soon became a major political power and promoted the flow of bilateral state contacts. The Safavid peak was during the rule of "". The Shah swiftly moved to defeat the, , and , bringing a flow of prosperity into Iranian cities.

The Safavids moved their capital from to  and then to  where their patronage for the arts propelled Persia into one of its most aesthetically productive eras. Under their rule, the state became highly centralized, the first attempts to modernize the military were made, and even.

The defeat of by Afghan rebels marked the start of the downfall of the Safavid era in 1722. One year later the last Safavid monarch lost his throne in 1735, successfully drove out the Afghan rebels from Isfahan and established the. He then staged an incursion into in 1738 securing the, , and  among other  treasures. His rule did not last long however, and he was assassinated in 1747.

The based Afshar dynasty was succeeded by the  in 1750, founded by, who established his capital at. His rule brought a period of relative peace and renewed prosperity. The Afshar dynasty lasted three generations, until executed  (assisted by the young Zand king's betrayal by his chancellor), and founded his new capital in, marking the dawn of the  in 1794. The capable chancellor  established  system, among other modernizing reforms. Mohammad Khan Qajars successors however gradually transformed Iran into an arena for the rising colonial powers of and the, which wielded great political influence in  under the subsequent id kings. Yet in spite of, Iran managed to maintain her sovereignty and was never colonized, unlike neighboring states in the region.

Persia suffered during the  era, resulting in Persia losing almost half of its territories to  and the  via the treaties of, , and. Repeated foreign intervention and a corrupt and weakened Qajar rule led to, which by the end of the Qajar period resulted in establishing  in 1906, within a.

in 1870-1871 is believed to have caused the death of 2 million people. During the 1917-1919 famine as much as 1/4 of the population living in the north of Persia died.

From the Pahlavi era to the Iranian Revolution (1921–1979)


With the rise of and encroachment of stronger Western powers in the late nineteenth century came the  of 1905–1911. Reformers hoped the constitution would strengthen Iran against and Britain by centralizing and modernizing it. Ultimately the constitution became law, but its provisions were seldom followed during most of its history.

In 1921, an army officer of Mazandarani and Persian descent (known as  after assuming the throne) staged a  against the weakened. An autocrat and supporter of modernization, Reza Shah initiated the development of modern, , and establishment of a national system. Reza Shah sought to balance the influence of Russia and Britain by seeking out assistance and technology from European powers traditionally not involved in Iranian affairs, but when started his closeness to Germany alarmed allied powers Russia and Britain, Germany's enemies.

In summer of 1941 to prevent Iran from allying with the Axis powers. The occupied Iran, securing a supply line to Russia, Iran's petroleum infrastructure, and forced the Shah to abdicate in favor of his son,. In 1951, a nationalist politician, Dr. rose to prominence in Iran and was elected. As Prime Minister, Mossadegh became enormously popular in Iran by the  (later, BP) which controlled the country's oil reserves. In response, Britain embargoed Iranian oil and began plotting to depose Mossadegh. Members of the British Intelligence Service invited the to join them, convincing U.S. President Eisenhower that Mossadegh was reliant on the   Party to stay in power. In 1953, President Eisenhower authorized, and the CIA took the lead in overthrowing Mossadegh and supporting a U.S.-friendly monarch; and for which the apologized in 2000.

The CIA faced many setbacks, but the soon went into full swing, conducted from the U.S. Embassy in Tehran under the leadership of  Iranians were hired to protest Mossadegh and fight pro-Mossadegh demonstrators. Anti- and pro-monarchy protestors violently clashed in the streets, leaving almost three hundred dead. The operation was successful in triggering a coup, and within days, pro-Shah tanks stormed the capital and bombarded the Prime Minister's residence. Mossadegh surrendered, and was arrested on. He was tried for treason, and sentenced to three years in prison.

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi returned to power greatly strengthened and his rule became increasingly in the following years. With strong support from the U.S. and U.K., the Shah further modernized Iranian industry, but simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his intelligence agency,. became an active critic of the Shah's and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini, who was popular in religious circles, was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General. Khomeini was sent first to, then to and finally to. While in exile, he continued to denounce the Shah.

Iranian Revolution and Iran-Iraq War (1979–1988)
The (also known as the )  transformed Iran from a  under , to an  under  , the leader of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic. The revolution began in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the. After strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country, the fled the country in January 1979. On, , Ayatollah Khomeini returned from exile to Tehran, enthusiastically greeted by millions of Iranians. The collapsed ten days later on  when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on, when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so. In December 1979 the country approved a constitution, whereby Khomeini became  of the country. The speed and success of the revolution surprised many throughout the world, as it had not been precipitated by a military defeat, a financial crisis, or a peasant rebellion. It produced profound change at great speed. It overthrew a regime thought to be heavily protected by a lavishly financed army and security services. And it replaced a monarchy with a theocracy based on (or velayat-e faqih). Although both nationalists and Marxists joined with Islamic traditionalists to overthrow the Shah, it ultimately resulted in an Islamic Republic "under the guidance of an 80-year-old exiled religious scholar from ,".

Iran's relations with the became deeply antagonistic during the revolution. On, Iranian students , labeling the embassy a "den of spies." They accused its personnel of being CIA agents plotting to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to in 1953. While the student ringleaders had not asked for permission from to seize the embassy,  nonetheless supported the embassy takeover after hearing of its success. While most of the and  hostages were released within the first months, the remaining fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days. This is often considered a violation of the long-standing principle of international law that diplomats are immune from arrest. The students demanded the handover of the Shah in exchange for the hostages, and following the Shah's death in the summer of 1980, that the hostages be put on trial for espionage. Subsequently attempts by the administration to negotiate or  were unsuccessful until January 1981 when the  was agreed upon. The U.S. promised (among other things) in the accord to release Iranian assets that had been frozen, but as of 2007 those assets still remain frozen.

leader decided to take advantage of what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and its unpopularity with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution, and with the Shah ousted, Hussein had ambitions to position himself as the new strong man of the Middle East. He also sought to expand Iraq's access to the by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was which not only boasted a substantial  population, but rich oil fields as well. On the unilateral behalf of the, the islands of and the  became objectives as well. With these ambitions in mind, Hussein planned a full-scale assault on Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. On, the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the. The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise.

Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations.

Tens of thousands of Iranian and  personnel were killed when Iraq used  in its warfare. by, the countries of the , the  and the  states, the  (beginning in 1983), , the , , , and the  (which also sold weapons to Iran).

There were more than 100,000 Iranian victims of Iraq's chemical weapons during the eight-year war. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian s; these agencies unanimously confirmed that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.

Government and politics
The political system of the Islamic is based on the 1979  called the "" ("Fundamental Law"). The system comprises several intricately connected governing bodies.  is responsible for of "the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran". The Supreme Leader is Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the twelve members of the are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem. The Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties.

After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the  as the highest state authority. The President is elected by for a term of four years. Presidential candidates must be approved by the prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution. The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters. The President appoints and supervises the, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty-one ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature. Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence. Iran's current president,, was elected in a run-off poll in the. His term expires in 2009.



The current  is a body. Before the, the legislature was , but the was removed under the new constitution. The  (Islamic Consultative Assembly) comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms. The Majlis drafts, ratifies international , and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the . The comprises twelve jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The others are elected by the from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the. The Council interprets the constitution and may Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or  (Islamic law), it is referred back to Parliament for revision. In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's constitution to veto parliamentary candidates.

The  has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.

The Supreme Leader appoints the head of , who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by s, although it has also taken on cases involving. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.

The , which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the determines candidates' eligibility. The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time. As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been publicly known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.

Finally,  are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article seven of Iran's Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies; planning and co-ordinating national participation in the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural, educational and other welfare affairs.

 are based on two strategic principles: eliminating outside influences in the region and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and. Iran maintains diplomatic relations with almost every member of the, except for , which Iran does not recognize, and the since the. Iran has come under since December 2006, because of its civilian.

Provinces and counties
Iran is divided into 30 (ostān), each governed by an appointed governor (استاندار, ostāndār). The provinces are divided into counties ('), and subdivided into districts (') and sub-districts (dehestān).

The map does not show the southern islands of (#20 listed below):

Major cities
Iran has one of the highest urban-growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002 the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%. The United Nations predicts that by 2030 the urban population will form 80% of the overall population. Most of the internal migrants have settled near the cities of, , , and. The listed populations are from the 2006/2007 (1385 ) census.

is the capital and largest city of Iran and like many big cities, suffers from severe air pollution. Tehran is the hub of the country's and  network. The city has numerous large museums, art centers, palace complexes and cultural centers and host 45% of Iran's industries.
 * Tehran (population 7,705,036)

(also spelt, literally "The place of martyrdom"), is located 850 kilometers (500 miles) east of , and is one of the holiest cities in the world as it is the site of the  of , 8th. It is the second largest city with a population of 2.8 million at the center of the province of. It's the center of tourism in Iran and between 15 and 20 million pilgrims go to the 's shrine every year.
 * Mashhad (population 2,410,800)

or, located about 340 km south of , is the capital of and Iran's third largest city.
 * Isfahan (population 1,583,609)

The in Isfahan has been designated by  as a. The city also contains a wide variety of sites ranging from the eleventh to the nineteenth century.

is the largest city in north-western Iran and is the capital of. Tabriz is situated north of the volcanic cone of south of the  mountain.
 * Tabriz (population 1,378,935)

is located in and is situated 20 km west of, at the foot of  mountains, however the city is increasingly becoming an extension of the metropolitan.
 * Karaj (population 1,377,450)

is the capital of and is located in the foothills of the. Shiraz is known as the city of poetry, wine and carpet production and flowers (such as roses). It is also famous for its importance in the. It has a moderate climate and has been a regional trade center for more than a thousand years.
 * Shiraz (population 1,204,882)

The city of, is the capital of the Iranian province of. It is built on the banks of the River and is situated in the middle of Khūzestān Province. The city has an average elevation of 20 meters above sea level.
 * Ahvaz (population 969,843)

(also known as Q'um or Kom) lies 97 mi by road south-west of and is the capital of  and is built on the banks of the  and is considered to be a holy city in, as it is the site of the shrine of , sister of Imam  (Persian Imam Reza, 789–816 CE). The city is the largest center for Shi'a scholarship in the world, and is a significant destination of pilgrimage.
 * Qom (population 951,918)

Geography and climate


Iran is the in the world after  and before ; Its area roughly equals the size of the, , , and  combined, about one-sixth the size of the  or slightly larger, in land mass, than the state of. Its borders are with (432 km/268 mi) and  (35 km/22 mi) to the northwest; the  to the north;  (992 km/616 mi) to the northeast;  (909 km/565 mi) and  (936 km/582 mi) to the east;  (499 km/310 mi) and Iraq (1,458 km/906 mi) to the west; and finally the waters of the  and the  to the south. Iran's area is 1,648,000 (approximately 636,300   )

Most of Iran is situated on the with the exception of the coast of the  and. Iran is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape is dominated by rugged s that separate various or s from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the, and  Mountains; the latter contains Iran's highest point,  at 5,604  (18,386 ft), which is not only the country's highest peak but also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the. The eastern part consists mostly of basins like the saline, Iran's largest desert, located in the north-central portion of the country, and the , in the east, as well as some s. This is because the mountain ranges are too high for rain clouds to reach these regions. Except for some scattered, such as , these deserts are uninhabited. The only large s are found along the coast of the and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the (or the Arvand Rūd)river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the and the.

Iran's is mostly  or, to  along the Caspian coast. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) temperatures nearly fall below freezing and remain humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 (84 ). Annual precipitation is 680 (27 ) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (67 in) in the western part. To the west, settlements in the Zagros Mountains basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters, sub-freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (eight in) of rain and have occasional desert. Average summer temperatures exceed 38 °C (100 °F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (five to fourteen inches).

Economy


is a mixture of, of oil and other large s, village , and small-scale private trading and service ventures. Its economic has been improving steadily over the past two decades but continues to be affected by  and. In the early twenty-first century the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry ( and manufacturing) and. About 45 percent of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31 percent came from taxes and fees. Government spending contributed to an average annual inflation rate of 14 percent in the period 2000–2004. In 2006 the GDP was estimated at $193.5 billion ($599.2 billion at PPP), or $2,440 per capita ($8,700 at ). Because of these figures and the country’s diversified but small industrial base, the United Nations classifies Iran's economy as semi-developed.

The services sector has seen the greatest long-term growth in terms of its share of GDP, but the sector remains volatile. State investment has boosted agriculture with the liberalization of production and the improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export markets. Thanks to the construction of many s throughout the country in recent years, large-scale schemes, and the wider production of export-based agricultural items like, s, and s, produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran over much of the 1990s. Although successive years of severe in 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001 have held back output growth substantially,  remains one of the largest employers, accounting for 22% of all jobs according to the 1991 census.

Iran's major commercial partners are, , , , , and. Since the late 1990s, Iran has increased its economic cooperation with other developing countries, including, , , , and. Iran is also expanding its trade ties with and  and shares with its partners the common goal of creating a single economic market in West and, much like the  called. Iran also expects to attract billions of dollars of by creating a more favorable investment climate, such as reduced restrictions and duties on imports, and free-trade zones in,  and.

The current administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. It is attempting to do this by revenues in areas like ,  industries, consumer ,  and. Iran has also developed a, , and industry. The strong oil market since 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iranian have been a chronic problem, in part due to, totaling more than $40 billion per year, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline.

Energy
Iran ranks second in the world in reserves and third in  reserves. In 2005, Iran spent US$4 billion dollars on fuel imports, because of and inefficient domestic use. Oil industry output averaged 4 million barrels per day in 2005, compared with the peak of 6 million barrels per day reached in 1974. In the early 2000s, industry was increasingly inefficient because of technological lags. Few exploratory were drilled in 2005.

In 2004, a large share of Iran’s natural gas reserves were untapped. The addition of new stations and the streamlining of conventional - and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75 percent was based on natural gas, 18 percent on oil, and 7 percent on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first -powered and geothermal plants, and the first thermal plant was to come online in 2009. trends and intensified industrialization have caused demand to grow by 8 percent per year. The government’s goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants financed by independent power producers, including those with backing, and by adding hydroelectric, and controversially,. Iran’s first at, built with assistance from , was not online by 2006. In 2005, Iran’s electricity were greater than its  by about 500 million kilowatt-hours; exchanges were made with all neighboring countries except Iraq.

Industrial production
The authorities so as the private sector have put in the past 15 years an emphasis on the local production of domestic-consumption oriented goods such as home appliances, cars, agricultural products, pharmaceutical, etc. Today, Iran possesses a good manufacturing industry, despite imposed by foreign countries. However, all nationalized industries such as the s have often been managed in the worse way, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Today, the government is trying to these industries, such as  Mineral water company or some down stream industries of the, and despite some successes, there are still several problems to be overcome such as the lagging corruption with the public sector (and therefore, nationalized industries) and lack of competitiveness.

Globally, Iran has leading manufacture industry in the fields of car-manufacture and transportations, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology and petrochemicals.

Tourism

 * See also: 

The declined dramatically during the war with Iraq in the 1980s but has subsequently revived. The majority of the 300,000 tourist granted in 2003 were obtained by Asian, who presumably intended to visit important  sites in  and. About 1,659,000 foreign visited Iran in 2004; most came from n countries, including the republics of, while a small share came from the countries of the  and. Several organized tours from, , and other an countries come to Iran annually to visit sites and. The government reported that in 2004 some 4 million tourists, including over 2 million Iranians on vacation, spent nearly US$2 billion in Iran, an increase of 10 percent over 2003. However, in the early 2000s the industry still faced serious limitations in, s, regulatory , and personnel.

Iran currently ranks 68th in revenues worldwide. Iran with attractive natural and historical sites is rated among the 10 most touristic countries in the world. Close to 1.8 percent of national employment is generated in the tourism sector which is slated to increase to 10 percent in the next five years. Iranian is one of the unique and distinctive features of its people.

Demography
Iran is a diverse country consisting of people of many religions and ethnic backgrounds cemented by the. , the founders of, constitute the majority of the. Seventy percent of present-day Iranians are, native speakers of who are descended from the   tribes that began migrating from Central Asia into what is now Iran in the second millennium BCE. The majority of the population speaks one of the, in addition to the official language,. The main ethnic groups are (51%),  (24%),  and  (8%),  (7%),  (3%),  (2%),  (2%),  (2%),, , , , , , , , , , , ,  and others (1%).

Iran's population increased dramatically during the latter half of the twentieth century, reaching about 70 million by 2006. In recent years, however, Iran's has dropped significantly. Studies show that Iran's rate of population growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes, by the year 2050, above 90 million. More than two-thirds of the population is under the age of 30, and the literacy rate is 79%. The number of is estimated at some four million people who emigrated to, , and , mostly during the  in the 1980s. Iran also hosts one of the largest population in the world, with more than one million refugees, mostly from  and. Since 2006, Iranian officials have been working with the and Afghan officials for their.

Most Iranians are Muslims; 90% belong to the branch of, the official state religion, and about 8% belong to the  branch, mainly Kurds and Iran's Balochi Sunni. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim, including , , , ,s, is, , , and. The latter three religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the  (Parliament). However the, Iran's largest religious minority, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the has increased with executions, the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education and employment. Currently, the Islamic Republic of Iran is noted for significant, despite efforts by human right activists, writers, s and some political parties. Human rights violations include governmental impunity, restricted, , treatment of , execution of , and in some cases torture.

According to the, the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to that covers , , old age, , , calamities,  and medical treatment and  services. This is covered by and income derived from public contributions. The in the last report on health systems ranks Iran's performance on health level 58th, and its overall  performance 93rd among the world's nations.

Military


The Islamic Republic of Iran has two kinds of : the regular forces, , and the  (IRGC), totalling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force totalling around 900,000 trained troops.

Iran also has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the IRGC, called the, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members, and a further 11 million men and women who could be mobilized This is the largest number of troop mobilization in the world.

Iran's military capabilities are kept largely secret. Since 1992, it has produced its own, , s, s, and. In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as missile,, , , , , and a variety of  (UAVs).

The is currently Iran's most advanced. It is a domestically-developed and produced missile with an unknown range. The solid-fuelled missile is a program which is supposed to be Iran's first missile to bring  into orbit. In 2005, Iran's military spending represented 3.3% of the GDP or $91 per capita, the lowest figure of the nations. Iran's military doctrine is to its territorial integrity only.

Culture


Few countries enjoy such a long cultural heritage as does Iran, and few people are so aware of and articulate about their deep cultural tradition as are the Iranians. Iran, or Persia, as a historical entity, dates to the time of the. Daily life in modern Iran is closely interwoven with and the country's art, literature, and architecture are an ever-present reminder of its deep national tradition and of a broader literary culture. Iranian culture has long been a predominant culture of the and, with  considered the language of intellectuals during much of the second millennium CE, and the language of religion and the populace before that. The Iranian New Year is celebrated on  from  in the west to  in the east. It is celebrated as the first day of spring. Norouz was nominated as one of 's in 2004.



Iranian customs and traditions often seem complex to the foreigner, but after further study reveal a rich and often intensely warm characteristic. For example, respect for the elderly and hospitality for foreigners, remain highly visible parts of, while the highly familial nuclear structure of Iran's society is in stark contrast to many western societies.

The remains "the world's oldest  declaration", predating the  by one millennium.

The Sassanid era, encompassing the length of the period, is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran, and had a major impact on the world. Persia influenced Roman civilization considerably during Sassanid times, their cultural influence extending far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe, Africa, China and India and also playing a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art. This influence carried forward to the. The dynasty's unique and aristocratic culture transformed the Islamic conquest and destruction of Iran into a Persian Renaissance. Most of what later became known as Islamic learning, including, , , , , , , , , and the  were taken from the Sassanid Persians in to the broader Muslim world.

On the other hand Islamic rituals have penetrated in the Iranian culture. The most noticeable one of them is. Every year in most of Iranians even  and  participate in mourning for the martyrs of. The commemoration of Karbala has permeated all of Persian culture and finds expression in poetry, music, and the solemn view of the world.

Women today compose more than half of the incoming classes for universities around the country and increasingly continue to play pivotal roles in society. The state also actively monitors the, which has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of.

Persian language
Persian is an tongue belonging to the  or  branch of the  family of languages. The oldest records in date back to the great Persian Empire of the 6th century BCE. The known history of the Persian language can be divided into three distinct periods:, and  and. Old Persian supposedly evolved from Proto-Indo-Iranian on the western wing in the Iranian plateau. The first known written evidence of Persian appears with the rise of the Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BCE.

During the Parthian and Sassanid empires, the morphology of the language was simplified from the complex conjugation and declension system of Old Persian to the almost completely regularized morphology and rigid syntax of Middle Persian.

The Islamic conquest of Persia marks the beginning of the modern history of Persian language and literature. It is known as the golden era of Persian. The commenced a synthesis of the Arabic and Iranian tongues. Also Modern Iranian Persian and Dari are normally written using a modified variant of the (see ) with different pronunciation and more letters.

An Iranian cultural renaissance in the late 8th century led to a reawakening of Persian literary culture, though the was now highly Arabized and in Arabic script, and native Persian Islamic dynasties began to appear with the rise of the  in the early 9th century. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the movement prompted writers, scientists, and scholars to write in Persian. The was used Persian in its  and led the revival of Persian culture and language. The culmination of the movement was the  by  (Persian: Book of Kings), Iran's national epic, entirely in native Persian. This gave rise to a strong reassertion of Iranian national identity, and is in part responsible for the continued existence of Persian as a separate language. Written on the wall of the room he had worked in for all those years, before he died, he also left a long poem, more like a curse, which ended with the words:

'' Heaven's vengeance will not forget. Shrink tyrant from my words of fire, and tremble at a poet's ire.''

بسی رنج بردم در این سال سی عجم زنده کردم بدین پارسی For thirty years, I suffered much pain and strife with Persian I gave the verve and life — (935–1020) 

Using Persian language in the of the non-Persian dynasties like  and  as well as Persian poems of  became instrumental in the revival of Persian. Persian beside Arabic has been a medium for literary and scientific contributions to the especially in,  and. It has had an influence on neighboring languages.

Poetry
Persian poetry is recognized worldwide and has served as an inspiration for writers and poets around the world. Iran's literary tradition is rich and diverse, However only a few names such as and  have surfaced among western popular readership, even though the likes of  and  are considered by many Iranians to be just as influential. Both and, for example were practitioners of , and are quoted by Iranians with passion.

So strong is the Persian aptitude for versifying everyday expressions that one can encounter poetry in almost every classical work, whether from Persian literature, science, or metaphysics. For example, almost half of 's medical writings are known to be versified. Works of the early era of Persian poetry are characterized by strong court patronage, an extravagance of, and what is known as سبک فاخر ("exalted in style").

"Love’s nationality is separate from all other religions, The lover’s religion and nationality is the Beloved (God). The lover’s cause is separate from all other causes. Love is the astrolabe of God’s mysteries".—.

همه عالم تن است و ایران دل نیست گوینده زین قیاس خجل

"Iran is the Heart and all the universe, The Body, Of this claim, the poet feels no regret or humility." —

بنى آدم اعضاء يک پیکرند که در آفرينش ز يک گوهرند چو عضوى بدرد آورد روزگار دگر عضوها را نماند قرار "Of one Essence is the human race thus has Creation put the base, One Limb impacted is sufficient For all Others to feel the Mace."— Inscribed on the entrance of ' Hall of Nations

Architecture
The main building types of classical are the  and the. Persian architecture display their extraordinary skills in making massive domes. Domes can be seen frequently in the structure of bazaars and mosques. Iranian domes are distinguished for their height, proportion of elements, beauty of form, and roundness of the dome stem. The outer surfaces of the domes are mostly mosaic faced, and create a magical view. The architecture makes use of abundant symbolic geometry. Persians were among the first to use, , and in architecture.

left a profound influence on the architecture of old civilizations. Professor wrote: ''Architecture in Iran has at least 6,000 years of continuous history, The supreme Iranian art, in the proper meaning of the word, has always been its architecture. The supremacy of architecture applies to both pre-and post-Islamic periods.'' examples of which can be seen from to north  and Chinese borders, and from  to. Each of the periods of ites, s, ns, and s were creators of great architecture that over the ages has spread wide and far to other cultures being adopted.

Iran ranks 7th among countries in the world with the most archeological architectural ruins and attractions from antiquity as recognized by. Fifteen of 's s are creations of Iranian architecture and the was identified as one of the.

Iranian art


The — consisting of the modern nations Iran,, , , ,  and surrounding regions — is home to one of the richest  heritages in world history and encompasses many disciplines including , , , , ,  and. The art of carpet weaving in Iran has its roots in the culture and customs of its people and their instinctive feelings. Weavers mix elegant patterns with a myriad of colors. The is a re-enactment of the : brimming with florae, birds, and beasts.

Cinema
Iranian cinema has continued to thrive in modern Iran, and many Iranian directors have garnered worldwide recognition for their work. (Iranian movies have won over three hundred awards in the past twenty-five years.) One of the best-known directors is. The Media of Iran is a mixture of private and state-owned, but books and movies must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance before being released to the public. State is often brought upon films which do not meet approval.

Cuisine
The cuisine of Iran is diverse, with each province featuring dishes, as well as culinary traditions and styles, distinct to their region. is not spicy. Most meals consist of a large serving of seasoned rice and an accompanying course, typically consists of meat, poultry, or fish. Herbs are used frequently. Onions and garlic are normally used in the preparation of the accompanying course, but are also served separately during meals, either in raw or pickled form.

Science and technology


Science in Iran, as the country itself, has a considerable history. From the to the, to the. Iran has reached scientific achievements and influenced world cultures for thousands of years. Iranians contributed significantly to the current understanding of, , , , and. To mention just a few, Persians first invented and discovered.

Iran strives to revive the golden age of Persian science. The country has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by.

Despite the limitations in funds, facilities, and international collaborations, remain highly productive in several experimental fields as, , , and. Iranian scientists are also helping construct the, a detector for 's due to come online in May 2008.

In the biomedical sciences, Iran's is a  chair in biology, and in late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully d a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the  in Isfahan.

The was launched in the 1950s. Iran's current facilities includes several research reactors, a mine, an almost complete commercial, and uranium processing facilities that include a. The launched its first  named  in 2006, and a "space rocket" in 2007, which aimed at improving science and research for university students.

Iran is now a world leader in theoretical disciplines, such as, and Iranian scientists are a significant portion of the international scientific community. In 1960, co-invented the first, along with American physicist William R. Bennett, Jr. In 1965,  was introduced by. Iranian cardiologist, invented the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the, and developed it further afterwards. was discovered by and introduced to the medical community, thereby furthering research and treatment of Diabetes. was proposed by Iranian string theorist ,and his co-worker. The KPZ equation in theoretical physics was named after, a notable Iranian physicist.

Sports in Iran
With two thirds of Iran's population under the age of 25, sports constitutes a highly active portion of Iran's society, both traditional and modern. Iran hence was the birthplace of sports such as, , and. was furthermore the first city in the to host the  in 1974.

Today, the most popular sport in Iran is, with being a  finalist three times, and having won the  on three occasions. However, is traditionally referred to as Iran's. Former champion  wrestled as an amateur in Iran before moving to the United States.

Iran is home to several unique skiing resorts, with the resort being the world's fifth-highest ski resort (3,730 m at its highest station) situated only fifteen minutes away from Tehran. Being a mountainous country, Iran offers enthusiasts abundant challenges for hiking, rock climbing, and mountain climbing.

Women are primarily active in and, but even in , female drivers participate in national rally tournaments, such as Iran's successful female driver.