1950s

The 1950s  refers to the years  to  inclusive. The Fifties in the and much of  are generally considered conservative in contrast to the Social Revolution of the next decade. Mass an developments and ideals serve as symbols of the era from the end of the Second World War in 1945 to the inauguration of   in 1961. Education grew explosively because of a very strong demand for high school and college education. The between the  and the  played out through the entire decade. The fifties also revolutionized entertainment with the mainstream introduction of, rapid growth of the recording industry and new genres of , and movies targeted at teenage audiences. Due to the conservative norms of the era and the sometimes violent suppression of social movements, seeds of rebellion grew and were manifested through, movies emphasizing rebelliousness, expansion of the , the so-called  of poets and artists. All of these played significant roles in the Social Revolution of the Sixties.

European
Rebirth of Europe, the emerged in  and. Additionally, ended in the.

Ascendancy of the United States
The 1950s in the U.S. were marked with a sharp rise in the for the first time in almost 30 years, and a return to the -type   built on credit and boom-times, as well as the  from returning s who went to college under the  and settled in  America. Most of the internal conflicts that had developed in earlier decades like, , and were relatively suppressed or neglected during this time as a world returning from the brink hoped to see a more consistent way of life as opposed to the  of the  and. The effect of suppressing social problems in the 1950s would have a significant impact on the rest of the.

Trends
In the West, an American generation traumatized by the and  created a culture with emphasis on normality and conformity. Europeans took a generally different approach to a post-war society, aiming for a greater inclusiveness and social awareness after a global crisis in the preceding decades that many blamed on the failings of, and the fifties were marked by the establishment of a in many countries in Western Europe.

Korean War
The, lasted from , until a  on   (as of 2007, there has been no peace treaty signed), started as a  between   and an. When it began, North and South Korea existed as provisional governments competing for control over the Korean peninsula, due to the by outside powers. While originally a civil war, it quickly escalated into a -era conflict and served as a between the capitalist powers of the  and its allies and the Communist powers of the  and the.

On, General planned a grand strategy to dissect North-Korean-occupied Korea at the city of  (Song Do port) to cut off further invasion by the North Korean army. Within a few days, MacArthurs' army took back (South Korea's capital). The plan succeeded which allowed American and South Korean forces to cut off further expansion by the North Koreans. The war continued until a cease-fire was agreed to by both sides on,. The war left 33,742 American soldiers dead and 92,134 wounded.

In the end, neither side had won the war. Nothing significant was gained on either side, while many lives had been lost. Before the war, the border was a line of ; after the war, it was shifted slightly diagonally.

U.S./USSR tensions result in "Cold War"
The "", which began as a geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle between the and the, intensified. During this time the and  were founded.

More American above-ground s happened during this decade than any other during the Cold War

The 1950s were also marked with a rapid rise in tensions between the and the, which would touch off the , the , , and the. 's death in 1953 left an enormous impact in Eastern Europe that forced the Soviet Union to create more liberal policies internally and externally.

The most notable political shift in the Eastern bloc would be the  which would soon falter due to the 's intervention.

In the United States there was a "" resulting in the.

Suez Crisis
The was a  fought on ian territory in. Following the nationalisation of the Suez Canal in 1956 by, the , and  subsequently invaded. The operation was a military success, but after the and  united in opposition to the invasion, the invaders were forced to withdraw. This was seen as a major humiliation, especially for the two European countries, and symbolises the beginning of the end of colonialism and weakening of European global importance.

European Common Market
The (or Common Market), the precursor of the, was established with the  in.

Civil rights
During this time, African-Americans were subject to racial segregation despite the belief put forward in The Declaration of Independence 1776 that, 'all men are created equal and that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.' However, the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s was brewing. Key figures like, and  highlighted and challenged those who were against African-American rights and freedom. The Little Rock Nine integrated Central High School ending segregation in schools.

Culture

 * and other hair tonics had a period of popularity
 * was said to be at unprecedented epidemic proportions in the, though some see this era as relatively low in compared to today.
 * Continuing in some regions during recessions later on in this decade. The 1950s is often mistakenly painted as the pinnacle of American prosperity. To some, it also may be considered the peak of our modern American civilization  The '50s were supposed to be a time of the "Affluent Society".
 * The 1950s saw fairly high rates of unionization, government social spending, taxes, and the like in the and an countries,. Most Western governments were liberal or, though domestic politics were also affected by reactions to communism and the Cold War.
 * , a culture of teenage and young adults who were seen as rebels and against the social norms, were popularized towards the end of the decade and criticised by older generations. They are seen as a predecessor for the and  movements.
 * Optimistic visions of a semi-utopian technological future, including such devices as the, were popular.
 *  hits movie theaters launching a cycle of Hollywood films in which Cold War fears are manifested through scenarios of alien invasion or mutation.
 * Considerable arose with military and school desegregation in mostly the southern part of the United States, though major controversy and uproar did not truly erupt until the 1960s.
 * Resurgence of evangelical including Youth for Christ (1943); the National Association of Evangelicals, the American Council of Christian Churches, the  Evangelistic Association (1950),  (1947);  and the Campus Crusade for Christ (1951).  was first published in 1956. 1956 also marked the beginning of Bethany Fellowship, a small press that would grow to be a leading evangelical press.
 * , a religious radio broadcaster, hosted the popular show "The Cowboy Church of the Air".

Fashion
Flying in the face of continuity, logic, and erudite sociological predictions, fashion in the 1950s, far from being revolutionary and progressive, bore strong nostalgic echoes of the past. A whole society which, in the 1920s and '30s, had greatly believed in progress, was now much more circumspect. Despite the fact that women had the right to vote, to work, and to drive their own cars, they chose to wear dresses made of opulent materials, with corseted waists and swirling skirts to mid-calf. As fashion looked to the past, haute couture experienced something of a revival and spawned a myriad of star designers who profited hugely from the rapid growth of the media.



Throughout the 1950s, although it would be for the last time, women around the world continued to submit to the trends of Parisian haute couture. Three of the most prominent of the Parisian couturiers of the time were, , and. The frugal prince of luxury, Cristobal Balenciaga Esagri made his fashion debut in the late Thirties. However, it was not until the post-war years that the full scale of the inventiveness of this highly original designer became evident. In 1951, he totally transformed the silhouette, broadening the shoulders and removing the waist. In 1955, he designed the tunic dress, which later developed into the chemise dress of 1957. And eventually, in 1959, his work culminated in the Empire line, with high-waisted dresses and coats cut like kimonos. His mastery of fabric design and creation defied belief. Balenciaga is also notable as one of the few couturiers in fashion history who could use their own hands to design, cut, and sew the models which symbolized the height of his artistry.

opened his first couture house in 1952 and created a sensation with his separates, which could be mixed and matched at will. Most renowned was his blouse made from shirting, which was named after his top model. Soon, boutiques were opened in, , and Buenos Aires. A man of immense taste and discrimination, he was, perhaps more than any other designer of the period, an integral part of the world whose understated elegance he helped to define.

Pierre Balmain opened his own salon in 1945. It was in a series of collections named 'Jolie Madame' that he experienced his greatest success, from 1952 onwards. Balmain's vision of the elegantly-dressed woman was particularly Parisian and was typified by the tailored glamour of the New Look, with its ample bust, narrow waist, and full skirts, by mastery of cut and imaginative assemblies of fabrics in subtle color combinations. His sophisticated clientèle was equally at home with luxurious elegance, simple tailoring, and a more natural look. Along with his haute couture work, the talented businessman pioneered a ready-to-wear range called Florilege and also launched a number of highly successful perfumes.

Also notable is the return of Coco Chanel (who detested the ) to the fashion world. Following the closure of her salons in the war years, in 1954, aged over seventy, she staged a comeback and on she presented a collection which contained a whole range of ideas that would be adopted and copied by women all over the world: her famous little braided suit with gold chains, shiny costume jewelry, silk blouses in colors that matched the suit linings, sleek tweeds, monogrammed buttons, flat black silk bows, boaters, quilted bags on chains, and evening dresses and furs that were marvels of simplicity.

After the war, the American look (which consisted of broad shoulders, floral ties, straight-legged pants, and shirts with long pointed collars, often worn hanging out rather than tucked in) became very popular among men in Europe. Certain London manufacturers ushered in a revival of elegance in men's fashion, adopting a tight-fitting  style that was intended to appeal to traditionalists. This look, originally aimed at the respectable young man about town, was translated into popular fashion as the style. The look, popularized by, , and Cifonelli, was taken up by an entire generation of elegant young lovers, on both sides of the Atlantic.

The designers of created a particular type of glamour for the stars of American film, and outfits worn by the likes of, , or  were widely copied. Quantitatively speaking, a costume worn by an actress in a Hollywood movie would have a much bigger audience than the photograph of a dress designed by a couturier illustrated in a magazine read by no more than a few thousand people. Without even trying to keep track of all the Paris styles, its costume designers focused on their own version of classicism, which was meant to be timeless, flattering, and. Using apparently luxurious materials, such as sequins, chiffon, and fur, the clothes were very simply cut, often including some memorable detail, such as a low-cut back to a dress which was only revealed when the actress turned her back from the camera or some particularly stunning accessory. The most influential and respected designers of Hollywood from the 1930s to the 1950s were, , , , , and.

By the end of the decade mass-manufactured, off-the-peg clothing had become much more popular than in the past, granting the general public unprecedented access to fashionable styles.

Rock-and-roll music


such as the era of  hit its peak and climaxed as early  music led by  was embraced by teenagers and the emerging  as the first wave of the  reached its teen years. Rock music was generally dismissed or condemned by older generations. Other prominent rock and roll musicians included, , , , ,.

World cinema


The 1950s represent what many see as the epitome of, starting in  with , the first major success of legendary Japanese director , which is considered to be one of the. Kurosawa followed this success with a string of classics such as ' (1952), ' (1954), ' (1957), and ' (1958).

Other Japanese directors who were at the top of their game at this period in time were and. Ozu made  in, which is widely considered one of the best films ever made, as well as the best Japanese film ever made. Ozu followed this success with a of his earlier , only this time in color and sound, which are both regarded as some of Ozu's best work.

In and, Mizoguchi made the two films that are widely considered to be his masterpieces, ' and '.

In addition to Japanese cinema receiving vast success worldwide, was experiencing a reboot after. In, renowned director  made what is widely considered to be his first masterpiece, . Although it did not achieve significant success at the time, Fellini followed it up with his international breakthrough, , which went on to win the first competitive. Fellini followed the success of La strada with another huge success, . Nights of Cabiria was lauded worldwide and earned Fellini another Oscar.

Meanwhile, in, a young was starting to leave his indelible stamp in cinema. In, after a string of financial flops, Bergman achieved his first international success, . Smiles of a Summer Night received international acclaim and earned Bergman a Jury Prize at the. Bergman followed up the success of Smiles with what remains his most famous film to this day, .

 was an ambitious project in which Antonious Block, after returning from plays  with Death in the hope that Death will allow him to live. The Seventh Seal earned unanimous praise worldwide and established Bergman as one of cinema's most promising, young directors and is still considered to be one of his best films, and some even consider it to be his masterpiece.

That same year, Bergman decided to follow The Seventh Seal with a more personal project on a much smaller scale, . Wild Strawberries is the story of an old man (played by ) who goes on a trip to receive an honorary degree with his daughter in law. During the trip, she tells him he is cold and unfeeling and he thinks over all the failures of his life. Bergman explores such trademark themes as the existence of and  in this film. Wild Strawberries also received enormous acclaim and only further emphasized his talent. It is now considered one of his greatest films, and is considered a year of prodigious output for the young Bergman.

Meanwhile, over in, young critics such as , , , and for the influential magazine  were starting to make their stamp in film. In, Chabrol made , the film that is widely considered to be the first film of the. But the New Wave only started receiving recognition in, when Truffaut released his debut feature, . The 400 Blows struck a chord in audiences worldwide and praise was lavished upon it. Today it is considered one of Truffaut's two best films, along with 's .

Later that year, Godard released his first film, . It received attention for its radical storytelling methods and mocking of gangster clichés. It is now regarded as a masterpiece, and one of Godard's best films. It remains Godard's only box office success to date.

Hollywood
Known as the "Golden Age", this era of movie-making saw the release of many classics, talented stars and directors. Films like ' with and, ' with , and  with , would become instant classics.

Westerns were getting bigger in the 1950s, with films like ' starring, and ' with , wrangling moviegoers back to the time of outlaws and wild shoot-outs. There was no shortage of war movies: the 1950s saw the release of ', directed by, ' starring , and 's , a potent anti-war film that starred as the French Col. Dax, defending three soldiers accused of cowardice.

Thrillers were also turning into a huge genre in post-war Hollywood. directed many big name pictures, including ', starring and, ' with , and , with James Stewart and.

Musicals including and  with  were released and   starring.

Animated films included 's ' and '.

Comedies are always popular, and the 1950s were no exception. ', ' with, and , and  starring  and , would be loved by many. The year would have an important comedy milestone, the last film of the great comedy duo,, , in which the pair starred as the inheritors of an island in the Pacific.

Literature
s and the, an anti-materialistic literary movement that began with in  and stretched on into the , was at its zenith in the 1950s. Such groundbreaking literature as 's ', 's ', 's ', Jack Kerouac's ', and 's  were published. Also published in this decade was epic . This decade is also marked by some of the most famous works of by science fiction writers, , , , and. Other significant literary works included ' ', 's ', 's ', ' ', 's ', 's ', 's ', 's ', 's ', and 's '.

Science and philosophy

 * The showed in  that under simulated conditions resembling those thought to be possible to have existed shortly after Earth was first created, many of the basic organic molecules that form the building blocks of life are able to spontaneously form.
 * ,, and discovered the helical structure of  at the  at the  in.
 * discovered the.
 * The first, developed by Jonas Salk, was introduced to the general public in.
 * The first s were done in and  in.

Prizes
is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in. In Churchill is given the Nobel Prize for literature. In  is awarded the Nobel Prize for literature for his work with ic literature.

The 1950s in sports



 * (Italian )
 * (English )
 * (American player)
 * (American player)
 * (English cricketer)
 * (Argentinian )
 * (English player)
 * (Australian cricketer)
 * (Canadian player)
 * (England cricketer)
 * (American player)
 * (American )
 * (English player)
 * (American player)
 * (Hungarian player)
 * (Argentinian player (but played for ))
 * (Hegemony over European soccer)
 * (Canadian player)
 * (American )
 * (American player)
 * (West Indies cricketer)
 * (England cricketer)
 * (Russian Soccer player)
 * ( cricketer)
 * (West Indies cricketer)
 * (English player)
 * (Russian player)
 * (American player)
 * (German soccer player)
 * (German soccer coach)
 * (Brazilian soccer player)
 * (Brazilian soccer player)

The Olympics

 * held in ,
 * held in ,
 * held in ,
 * held in ,

The 1950s in technology

 * was launched in.
 * brings into service the the world's first commercial jet airliner.
 * , perhaps the single most important milestone in the development of programming languages, was developed at IBM.

In the Middle East
Most of the countries of the Middle East continued in the national divisions created by their former European occupiers. However, with the growing importance of their abundance of, the otherwise mostly impoverished states experienced an increase of to mostly the  aristocratic or later theocratic regimes.

The growth of the state of continued.

became involved in Palestinian politics in.

In American troops entered  to restore order.

In Africa
was occurring in in the 1950s. In Sudan, Tunisia, and Morocco became independent. In guerrillas started the. continued its occupation and extensively used torture and death squads in an attempt to win the war. They were later forced out, but not until after training through example some of the most skilled rs of the late 20th century.

The began their terrorist attacks against the  in Kenya. This led to in Kenya, the retreat of the British, and the election of former terrorist  as leader of Kenya.

Africa experienced the beginning of large-scale top-down economic s in the 1950s that failed to cause improvement and led to charitable exhaustion by the as the century went on. The widespread corruption was not dealt with and war, disease, and famine continue to be constant problems in this region.

In Asia
The nations of and  began their history after their establishment in the late 1940s. began to rise in prominence in China as he helped lead a revolution against the Nationalist government. In the  occupiers of  tried to contain a growing communist insurgency against their rule led by. After their defeat at in  they were forced to cede independence the nations of,  and. Vietnam however was divided between the communist north and American-influence south, and conflict continued. By the three-year war between, supported by , and , supported by the , had ended. This war resulted in a permanent border between the north and south sections of this country.

After the United States occupied Japan and assisted in its rebuilding. Social changes took place, including a move toward democratic elections, universal suffrage, emphasis on rebuilding of industry, as well as a fairly secure lifetime employment.

In Latin America
In the 1950s was the center of covert and overt conflict between the  and the. Their varying collusion with national, populist, and elitist interests destabilized the region. However, the intervention of the allowed future exploitation of  mineral and natural resources with no or minimal repayment to the general population. The   the overthrow of the n government in. In the military dictatorship of Venezuela was overthrown. This continued a pattern of regional revolution and warfare making extensive use of.

In Europe
Post-war reconstruction succeeded, thanks to mostly non-corrupt implementation of the. Europe continued to be divided into free and Soviet bloc countries. The geographical point of this division came to be called the. It divided into  and. In West Germany joined. This alliance was formed out of to defend against a theoretical n ground invasion that never took place. The leaders of East Germany were equally afraid of this. In Soviet troops marched into.

In the  was part of the beginning of the process that led to the. This union from the beginning was based on regulation and trade, and the weakness of basing a union on mercantile principles was not seen until into the 21st century.

In the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc
The continued its domination of the territories it conquered during. Life was economically harsh and persecution of native religions intense. (See the .) In, the leader of the Soviet Union, died and in the resulting power struggle head of the   was denounced and executed. This enabled the future leadership of Russia to scapegoat them for the problems caused by the. Popular rebellions in in  and Hungary in  were brutally put down.

In the United States
The United States, thanks to the, low-entry-cost housing, and a booming economy, experienced a cultural shift as people acquired spacious housing, kitchens, and washing technologies that gave a higher quality of life. The Salk polio vaccine was introduced to the general public in. This was one of the major advances in vaccinations in the 20th century.

In the Caribbean
In 1957, Dr. came to power in an election in. He later declared himself president for life, and ruled until his death in 1971.

In 1959 overthrew the corrupt Batista regime in Cuba, initiating widespread social reform on the island. The romance and popularity of the revolution, and such leader as the Argentinian gave it global appeal and recognition. The was, however, now unable to meddle with either its social or economic development and was angered when Castro redistributed land that had been owned by American companies. It would thus become involved in an and clumsy attempts to overthrow Castro, with  as a result moving closer to the.

In the United Kingdom
After World War II the United Kingdom made a slow return from post-war rationing of food. The economy was also rebuilt slowly but thanks to abundant fields as well as geographical separation from the an continent it experienced more post-war prosperity than the rest of Europe. The incoming in the 1951 general election, decided to retain the  and  that had  been established by the previous  administration establishing a post war consensus that would last a generation. The coronation of a young new Monarch with Elizabeth II instilled a sense of national revival but the debacle of Suez triggered a sharp decline of national confidence linked to the withdrawal from colonial possessions in Asia.

Entertainers




World leaders

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 * Taoiseach
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