Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938)/biography

Sir Muhammad Iqbal (: محمد اقبال) born ( –  ) was a ,  and   born in ,  (now in ), whose poetry in  and  is considered to be among the greatest of the modern era, and whose vision of an independent state for the Muslims of  was to inspire the creation of. He is commonly referred to as Allama Iqbal (علامہ اقبال, Allama lit. Scholar.)

After studying in and, Iqbal established a law practice, but concentrated primarily on writing scholarly works on politics, economics, history, philosophy and religion. He is best known for his poetic works, including '&mdash;which brought a &mdash; ', and the ', with its enduring patriotic song '. In and, where he is known as Iqbāl-e Lāhorī (اقبال لاهوری Iqbal of ), he is highly regarded for his Persian works.

Simple and alluring, the song became a rallying point for freedom fighters. It remains one of the most popular patriotic songs in India and its music favorite of all marching bands.

Iqbal was a strong proponent of the political and spiritual revival of across the world, but specifically in India; a series of famous lectures he delivered to this effect were published as . One of the most prominent leaders of the, Iqbal encouraged the creation of a "state in northwestern India for Indian Muslims" in his 1930 presidential address. Iqbal encouraged and worked closely with, and he is known as Muffakir-e-Pakistan ("The Thinker of Pakistan"), Shair-e-Mashriq ("The Poet of the East"), and Hakeem-ul-Ummat ("The Sage of "). He is officially recognised as the "" in Pakistan. The anniversary of his birth (یوم ولادت محمد اقبال - Yōm-e Welādat-e Muḥammad Iqbāl) on is a.

Early life
Sheikh Muhammad Iqbal was born in, , (now part of ); the eldest of five siblings in a i family. It is believed that Iqbal's family were originally s, but became  following his ancestor 's conversion to Islam, although this version is disputed by some scholars. Iqbal's father Shaikh Nur Muhammad was a prosperous tailor, well-known for his devotion to, and the family raised their children with deep religious grounding.

The boy was educated initially by tutors in languages and writing, history, poetry and religion. His potential as a poet and writer was recognised by one of his tutors, Sayyid Mir Hassan, and Iqbal would continue to study under him at the in Sialkot. The student became proficient in several languages and the skill of writing prose and poetry, and graduated in 1892. Following custom, at the age of 15 Iqbal's family arranged for him to be married to Karim Bibi, the daughter of an affluent i physician. The couple had two children: a daughter, Mi'raj Begam (born 1895) and a son, Aftab (born 1899). Iqbal's third son died soon after birth. The husband and wife were unhappy in their marriage and eventually divorced in 1916.

Iqbal entered the in  where he studied philosophy,  and  and obtained a  degree, graduating cum laude. He won a gold medal for topping his examination in philosophy. While studying for his masters degree, Iqbal came under the wing of, a scholar of Islam and modern philosophy at the college. Arnold exposed the young man to Western culture and ideas, and served as a bridge for Iqbal between the ideas of East and West. Iqbal was appointed to a readership in Arabic at the in Lahore, and he published his first book in Urdu, The Knowledge of Economics in 1903. In 1905 Iqbal published the patriotic song,  (Song of India).

At Sir Thomas's encouragement, Iqbal travelled to and spend many years studying in. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree from at  in 1907, while simultaneously studying law at, from where he qualified as a  in 1908. Iqbal also met a Muslim student, Atiyah Faizi in 1907, and had a close relationship with her. In Europe, he started writing his poetry in Persian as well. Throughout his life, Iqbal would prefer writing in Persian as he believed it allowed him to fully express philosophical concepts, and it gave him a wider audience. It was while in that he first participated in politics. Following the formation of the in 1906, Iqbal was elected to the executive committee of its British chapter in 1908. Together with two other politicians, and, Iqbal sat on the subcommittee which drafted the constitution of the League. In 1907, Iqbal travelled to to pursue a  from the Faculty of Philosophy of the  at. Working under the supervision of Friedrich Hommel, Iqbal published a thesis titled: .

Literary career
Upon his return to India in 1908, Iqbal took up assistant professorship at the Government College in Lahore, but for financial reasons he relinquished it within a year to practise law. During this period, Iqbal's personal life was in turmoil. he divorced Karim Bibi in 1916, but provided financial support to her and their children for the rest of his life.

While maintaining his legal practise, Iqbal began concentrating on spiritual and religious subjects, and publishing poetry and literary works. He became active in the, a congress of Muslim intellectuals, writers and poets as well as politicians, and in 1919 became the general secretary of the organisation. Iqbal's thoughts in his work primarily focused on the spiritual direction and development of human society, centred around experiences from his travel and stay in Western Europe and the Middle East. He was profoundly influenced by Western philosophers such as, and , and soon became a strong critic of Western society's separation of religion from state and what he perceived as its obsession with materialist pursuits.

The poetry and philosophy of bore the deepest influence on Iqbal's mind. Deeply grounded in religion since childhood, Iqbal would begin intensely concentrating on the study of Islam, the culture and history of Islamic civilization and its political future, and embrace as "his guide." Iqbal would feature Rumi in the role of a guide in many of his poems, and his works focused on reminding his readers of the past glories of Islamic civilization, and delivering a message of a pure, spiritual focus on Islam as a source for socio-political liberation and greatness. Iqbal denounced political divisions within and amongst Muslim nations, and frequently alluded to and spoke in terms of the global Muslim community, or the Ummah.

Works in Persian
Iqbal's poetic works are written mostly in rather than. Among his 12,000 verses of poem, almost more than 7,000 verses are in Persian. In 1915, he published his first collection of poetry, the  (Secrets of the Self) in Persian. The poems delve into concepts of and emphasise the spirit and self from a religious, spiritual perspective. Many critics have called this Iqbal's finest poetic work. In Asrar-e-Khudi, Iqbal has explained his philosophy of "Khudi," or "Self." He proves by various means that the whole universe obeys the will of the "Self." Iqbal condemns self-destruction. For him the aim of life is self-realization and self-knowledge. He charts the stages through which the "Self" has to pass before finally arriving at its point of perfection, enabling the knower of the "Self" to become the viceregent of.

In his  (Hints of Selflessness), Iqbal seeks to prove that Islamic way of life is the best code of conduct for a nation's viability. A person must keep his individual characteristics intact but once this is achieved he should sacrifice his personal ambitions for the needs of the nation. Man cannot realise the "Self" out of society. Also in Persian and published in 1917, this group of poems has as its main themes the ideal, Islamic ethical and social principles and the relationship between the individual and society. Although he is true throughout to Islam, Iqbal recognises also the positive analogous aspects of other religions. The Rumuz-e-Bekhudi complements the emphasis on the self in the Asrar-e-Khudi and the two collections are often put in the same volume under the title Asrar-e-Rumuz (Hinting Secrets), and it is addressed to the world's Muslims. Iqbal sees the individual and his community as reflections of each other. The individual needs to be strengthened before he can be integrated into the community, whose development in turn depends on the preservation of the communal ego. It is through contact with others that an ego learns to accept the limitations of its own freedom and the meaning of love. Muslim communities must ensure order in life and must therefore preserve their communal tradition. It is in this context that Iqbal sees the vital role of women, who as mothers are directly responsible for inculcating values in their children.

Iqbal's 1924 publication, the Payam-e-Mashriq (The Message Of The ) is closely connected to the West-östlicher Diwan by the famous German poet. Goethe bemoaned that the West had become too materialistic in outlook and expected that the East would provide a message of hope that would resuscitate spiritual values. Iqbal styles his work as a reminder to the West of the importance of morality, religion and civilization by underlining the need for cultivating feeling, ardour and dynamism. He explains that an individual could never aspire for higher dimensions unless he learns of the nature of spirituality. In his first visit to, he presented his book "Payam-e Mashreq" to in which he admired the liberal movements of Afghanistan against the. In 1933, he was officially invited to Afghanistan to join the meetings regarding the establishment of. The ' ('), published in 1927, includes the poems Gulshan-e-Raz-e-Jadeed (Garden of New Secrets) and  (Book of Slavery). In Gulshan-e-Raz-e-Jadeed, Iqbal first poses questions, then answers them with the help of ancient and modern insight and shows how it effects and concerns the world of action. Bandagi Nama denounces slavery by attempting to explain the spirit behind the fine arts of enslaved societies. Here as in other books, Iqbal insists on remembering the past, doing well in the present and preparing for the future, emphasising love, enthusiasm and energy to fill the ideal life. Iqbal's 1932 work, the ' (Book of Javed) is named after and in a manner addressed to his son, who is featured in the poems, and follows the examples of the works of and 's ', through  across time. Iqbal depicts himself as  ("A stream full of life") guided by Rumi, "the master," through various heavens and spheres, and has the honour of approaching divinity and coming in contact with divine illuminations. In a passage re-living a historical period, Iqbal condemns the Muslim traitors who were instrumental in the defeat and death of Nawab of  and  of  respectively by betraying them for the benefit of the, and thus delivering their country to the shackles of slavery. At the end, by addressing his son Javid, he speaks to the young people at large, and provides guidance to the "new generation."

His love to Persian language is evident in his works and poetry. He says in one of his poems:

گرچه اردو در عذوبت شکر است

garche Urdu dar uzūbat sh akar ast

لیک پارسی ام ز هندی شیرینتر است

lék Pārsī-am ze Hindi sh īrīntar ast

Translation:

Even though in sweetness * is sugar - (but) My is sweeter than *


 * Note: In Iqbal's time the terms Hindi and Urdu were synonyms (see )

Works in Urdu
Iqbal's first work published in Urdu, the  (The Call of the Marching Bell) of 1924, was a collection of poetry written by him in three distinct phases of his life. The poems he wrote up to 1905, the year Iqbal left for England imbibe patriotism and imagery of landscape, and includes the ' (The Song of India), popularly known as ' and another poem  (Anthem of the (muslim) Community), which was composed in the same metre and rhyme scheme as Saare Jahan Se Achcha. The second set of poems date from between 1905 and 1908 when Iqbal studied in Europe and dwell upon the nature of European society, which he emphasized had lost spiritual and religious values. This inspired Iqbal to write poems on the historical and cultural heritage of Islamic culture and Muslim people, not from an Indian but a global perspective. Iqbal urges the global community of Muslims, addressed as the  to define personal, social and political existence by the values and teachings of Islam. Poems such as  (Dawn of Islam) and Khizr-e-Rah (The Guided Path) are especially acclaimed.

Iqbal preferred to work mainly in Persian for a predominant period of his career, but after 1930, his works were mainly in Urdu. The works of this period were often specifically directed at the Muslim masses of India, with an even stronger emphasis on Islam, and Muslim spiritual and political reawakening. Published in 1935, the  (Wings of ) is considered by many critics as the finest of Iqbal's Urdu poetry, and was inspired by his visit to, where he visited the monuments and legacy of the kingdom of the. It consists of, poems, , and carries a strong sense religious passion.

The  (What are we to do, O Nations of the East?) includes the poem Musafir (Traveller). Again, Iqbal depicts Rumi as a character and an exposition of the mysteries of Islamic laws and perceptions is given. Iqbal laments the dissension and disunity among the Indian Muslims as well as Muslim nations. Musafir is an account of one of Iqbal's journeys to Afghanistan, in which the are counseled to learn the "secret of Islam" and to "build up the self" within themselves. Iqbal's final work was the  (The Gift of ), published posthumously in 1938. The first part contains quatrains in Persian, and the second part contains some poems and s in Urdu. The Persian s convey the impression as though the poet is travelling through the in his imagination. Profundity of ideas and intensity of passion are the salient features of these short poems. The Urdu portion of the book contains some categorical criticism of the intellectual movements and social and political revolutions of the modern age.

Political career
While dividing his time between law and poetry, Iqbal had remained active in the Muslim League. He supported Indian involvement in, as well as the and remained in close touch with Muslim political leaders such as  and. He was a critic of the mainstream, which he regarded as dominated by and was disappointed with the League when during the 1920s, it was absorbed in factional divides between the pro-British group led by  and the centrist group led by Jinnah.

In November 1926, with the encouragement of friends and supporters, Iqbal contested for a seat in the from the Muslim district of Lahore, and defeated his opponent by a margin of 3,177 votes. He supported the presented by Jinnah with the aim of guaranteeing Muslim political rights and influence in a coalition with the Congress, and worked with the  and other Muslim leaders to mend the factional divisions and achieve unity in the Muslim League.

Revival of Islamic polity
Iqbal's second book in English, the , is a collection of his six lectures which he delivered at, and ; first published as a collection in , in 1930. These lectures dwell on the role of Islam as a religion as well as a political and legal philosophy in the modern age. In these lectures Iqbal firmly rejects the political attitudes and conduct of Muslim politicians, whom he saw as morally-misguided, attached to power and without any standing with Muslim masses. Iqbal asserted that as a guiding principle for government was a mistake and must be abandoned by the Muslim polity. Iqbal expressed fears that not only would secularism weaken the spiritual foundations of Islam and Muslim society, but that India's -majority population would crowd out Muslim heritage, culture and political influence. In his travels to, , and , he promoted ideas of greater Islamic political co-operation and unity, calling for the shedding of nationalist differences. He also speculated on different political arrangements to guarantee Muslim political power; in a dialogue with Dr., Iqbal expressed his desire to see Indian provinces as autonomous units under the direct control of the British government and with no central Indian government. He envisaged autonomous Muslim provinces in India. Under one Indian union he feared for Muslims, who would suffer in many respects especially with regard to their existentially separate entity as Muslims. Sir Muhammad Iqbal was elected president of the Muslim League in 1930 at its session in, in the as well as for the session in Lahore in 1932. In his presidential address on, , Iqbal outlined a vision of an independent state for Muslim-majority provinces in northwestern India: "'I would like to see the,, and amalgamated into a single state. Self-government within the , or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated Northwest Indian Muslim state appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of Northwest India.'"

In his speech, Iqbal emphasised that unlike, Islam came with "legal concepts" with "civic significance," with its "religious ideals" considered as inseparable from social order: "therefore, the construction of a policy on national lines, if it means a displacement of the Islamic principle of solidarity, is simply unthinkable to a Muslim." Iqbal thus stressed not only the need for the political unity of Muslim communities, but the undesirability of blending the Muslim population into a wider society not based on Islamic principles. He thus became the first politician to articulate what would become known as the  &mdash; that Muslims are a distinct nation and thus deserve political independence from other regions and communities of India. However, he would not elucidate or specify if his ideal Islamic state would construe a, even as he rejected secularism and nationalism. The latter part of Iqbal's life was concentrated on political activity. He would travel across Europe and West Asia to garner political and financial support for the League, and he reiterated his ideas in his 1932 address, and during the, he opposed the Congress and proposals for transfer of power without considerable autonomy or independence for Muslim provinces. He would serve as president of the Punjab Muslim League, and would deliver speeches and publish articles in an attempt to rally Muslims across India as a single political entity. Iqbal consistently criticised feudal classes in Punjab as well as Muslim politicians averse to the League.

Relationship with Jinnah
Ideologically separated from Congress Muslim leaders, Iqbal had also been disillusioned with the politicians of the Muslim League owing to the factional conflict that plagued the League in the 1920s. Discontent with factional leaders like Sir Muhammad Shafi and Sir Fazl-ur-Rahman, Iqbal came to believe that only Muhammad Ali Jinnah was a political leader capable of preserving this unity and fulfilling the League's objectives on Muslim political empowerment. Building a strong, personal correspondence with Jinnah, Iqbal was an influential force on convincing Jinnah to end his self-imposed exile in, return to India and take charge of the League. Iqbal firmly believed that Jinnah was the only leader capable of drawing Indian Muslims to the League and maintaining party unity before the British and the Congress:

"'I know you are a busy man but I do hope you won't mind my writing to you often, as you are the only Muslim in India today to whom the community has right to look up for safe guidance through the storm which is coming to North-West India and, perhaps, to the whole of India.'"

There were significant differences between the two men &mdash; while Iqbal believed that was the source of government and society, Jinnah was a believer in secular government and had laid out a secular vision for Pakistan where religion would have "nothing to do with the business of the state." Iqbal had backed the Khilafat struggle; Jinnah had dismissed it as "religious frenzy." And while Iqbal espoused the idea of partitioning Muslim-majority provinces in 1930, Jinnah would continue to hold talks with the Congress through the decade and only officially embraced the goal of Pakistan in 1940. Some historians postulate that Jinnah always remained hopeful for an agreement with the Congress and never fully desired the partition of India. Iqbal's close correspondence with Jinnah is speculated by some historians as having been responsible for Jinnah's embrace of the idea of Pakistan. Iqbal elucidated to Jinnah his vision of a separate Muslim state in a letter sent on, :

"'A separate federation of Muslim Provinces, reformed on the lines I have suggested above, is the only course by which we can secure a peaceful India and save Muslims from the domination of Non-Muslims. Why should not the Muslims of North-West India and be considered as nations entitled to self-determination just as other nations in India and outside India are.'" Iqbal, serving as president of the Punjab Muslim League, criticised Jinnah's political actions, including a political agreement with Punjabi leader, whom Iqbal saw as a representative of feudal classes and not committed to Islam as the core political philosophy. Nevertheless, Iqbal worked constantly to encourage Muslim leaders and masses to support Jinnah and the League. Speaking about the political future of Muslims in India, Iqbal said:

"'There is only one way out. Muslims should strengthen Jinnah's hands. They should join the Muslim League. Indian question, as is now being solved, can be countered by our united front against both the Hindus and the English. Without it, our demands are not going to be accepted. People say our demands smack of communalism. This is sheer propaganda. These demands relate to the defence of our national existence.... The united front can be formed under the leadership of the Muslim League. And the Muslim League can succeed only on account of Jinnah. Now none but Jinnah is capable of leading the Muslims.'"

In his views on Muslim political future, Iqbal was at odds with, who had opposed the partition of India. Maududi had however, been closer to Iqbal's poetic-philosophy of an ideal Islamic state which would reject secularism and nationalism. After the creation of Pakistan, nine years after Iqbal's death, Jinnah and other League politicians would publicly credit Iqbal as one of the visionaries and founders of the state.

Death
In 1933, after returning from a trip to Spain and Afghanistan, Iqbal's health deteriorated. He spent his final years working to establish the Idara Dar-ul-Islam, an institution where studies in classical Islam and contemporary social science would be subsidised, and advocating the demand for an independent Muslim state. Iqbal ceased practising law in 1934 and he was granted pension by the. After suffering for months from a series of protracted illnesses, Iqbal died in Lahore in 1938. is located in the space between the entrance of the and the, and an official guard is maintained there by the.

Iqbal is commemorated widely in Pakistan, where he is regarded as the ideological founder of the state. His  is a song that is widely used in India as a patriotic song speaking of communal harmony. His birthday is annually commemorated in Pakistan as Iqbal Day and is a national holiday. For a long time, Iqbal's actual date of birth remained disputed, with many believing to be the date of Iqbal's birth. On, a Pakistani government committee officially declared Iqbal's date of birth to be. Iqbal is the of many public institutions, including the  and the  in Lahore &mdash; the second-busiest airport in the nation. Government and public organizations have sponsored the establishment of colleges and schools dedicated to Iqbal, and have established the to research, teach and preserve the works, literature and philosophy of Iqbal. His son has served as a justice on the.

Criticism
Some intellectuals criticised Iqbal for embracing 's concept of , reflected in Iqbal's descriptions of ego, self, and renewal for Muslim civilization. He has also been criticised for his advocacy of Islamic political revival and rejection of Western cultural influences. Several scholars have called his poetic descriptions of the true practice of Islam impractical and wrongly dismissive of diverse societies and cultural heritages.

While credited and admired as the conceptual founder of Pakistan, Iqbal is criticised by some historians and scholars for implicitly endorsing the incompatibility of Muslims with other religious communities. Some historians and Indian nationalists criticise Iqbal's vision for a Muslim state as specifically implying the denunciation of and, as well as the peaceful co-existence of Hindus and Muslims. Iqbal was also strongly criticised for advocating on occasions, the division and fragmentation of India. Critics also point to the that led to the secession of  in 1971, as well as recent sectarian and religious conflict in Pakistan to suggest that Iqbal's notion of a natural Muslim nation and of Islam as a political, unifying identity was inherently flawed and fanciful. Despite this criticism, Iqbal is widely credited for his work in encouraging the political rejuvenation and empowerment of Muslims, and as a great poet not only in India and Pakistan, but also in Iran, Afghanistan and Muslim nations in the.