George Washington (1732-1799)/biography

George Washington (, –, ) was a central, critical figure in the founding of the , as well as the nation's first  (1789–1797). Before becoming one of the major founding fathers of the nation, as well as president, Washington led the to victory over the  in the  (1775–1783).

Washington was seen as symbolizing the new nation and in practice. His devotion to made him an exemplary figure among early. During Washington's funeral oration, said that of all Americans, he was "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." Scholars consistently rank him, together with and, as one of the.

Overview
Due to his military experience, charisma, leadership of the cause, and political base in Virginia, the  chose him, in 1775, as the  of the American revolutionary forces. In 1776, he forced the, but, later that same year, was defeated, and nearly captured, when he. However, he revived the patriot cause by crossing the  As a result of his strategy, Revolutionary forces captured the two main British combat armies, first at  in 1777 and then at  in 1781. Negotiating with Congress, the colonial states, and, he held together a tenuous army and a fragile, nascent nation amid the threats of disintegration and failure. Following the end of the war in 1783, Washington retired to on.

Alarmed in the late 1780s at the many weaknesses of the new nation under the, he presided over the that drafted the  in 1787. In 1789, Washington became President of the United States and established many of the customs and usages of the. He sought to create a great nation capable of surviving in a world torn asunder by war between Britain and France. His of 1793 provided a basis for. He supported 's plans to build a strong  by funding the, implementing an , and creating a. When rebels in defied Federal authority, he rode  to authoritatively quell the. Washington avoided the temptation of war and began a decade of peace with Britain via the in 1795; he used his immense prestige to get it ratified over intense opposition from the. Although he never officially joined the, he supported its programs and was its inspirational leader. Washington's was a primer on republican virtue and a stern warning against involvement in foreign wars.

Early life
George Washington was born on, , the first son of  and his second wife, , on the family's  near present-day  in ,.

In his youth, Washington worked as a surveyor of rural lands and acquired what would become invaluable knowledge of the terrain around his native state of. Washington embarked upon a career as a planter and in 1748 was invited to help survey lands west of the. In 1749, he was appointed to his first public office, surveyor of newly created, and through his half-brother, , he became interested in the , which aimed to exploit Western lands. After Lawrence's death in 1752, George inherited part of his estate and took over some of Lawrence's duties as adjutant of the colony.

As district adjutant, which made him Major Washington at the age of 20 in December 1752, he was charged with training the militia in the quarter assigned him. At age 21, in, Washington became a Master Mason in the organization of , a fraternal organization that was a lifelong influence.

In December 1753, sent Washington to assess French military strength and intentions, and to deliver a message to the French at  in present day. The message, which went unheeded, called for the French to abandon their development of the Ohio country, setting in motion two colonial powers toward worldwide conflict. Washington's report on the affair was widely read on both sides of the Atlantic.

French and Indian War


In 1754, Dinwiddie sent Washington to drive out the French. With his allies led by, Washington and his troops ambushed a French scouting party of some 30 men, led by. Washington and his troops were overwhelmed at by a larger and better positioned French and Indian force. The terms of surrender included a statement that Washington had assassinated the scouts and their leader at the. Released by the French, Washington returned to Virginia, where he resigned rather than accept demotion.

In 1755, Washington joined British General in a major effort to retake the Ohio Country. While Braddock was killed and the expedition ended in disaster, Washington distinguished himself as the Hero of the Monongahela. While Washington's role during the battle has been debated, biographer asserts that Washington rode back and forth across the battlefield, rallying the remnant of the British and Virginian forces to a retreat.

In fall 1755, Washington was given a difficult frontier command in the Virginia mountains. In 1758, he took part in the, which successfully drove the French from. Later that year, Washington resigned from active military service and spent the next sixteen years as a Virginia planter and politician.

Between the wars
George Washington was introduced to, a widow who was living at on the south shore of the  in , by friends of Martha when George was on leave from the French and Indian War. George only visited her home twice before proposing marriage to her 3 weeks after they met. George and Martha were each 27 years old when they married on  at her home, known as The White House, which shared its name with the future. The newlywed couple moved to, where he took up the life of a genteel planter and political figure. They had a good marriage, and together, they raised her two children by her previous marriage to, and Martha Parke Custis, affectionately called "Jackie" and "Patsy". George and Martha never had any children together—an earlier bout with followed, possibly, by  may have left him sterile. Later the Washingtons raised two of Mrs. Washington's grandchildren, ("Nelly") and  ("Washy") after their father died in 1781.

Washington's marriage to a wealthy widow greatly increased his property holdings and social standing. He acquired one-third of the 18,000 acre (73 km²) Custis estate upon his marriage, and managed the remainder on behalf of Martha's children. He frequently purchased additional land in his own name, and was granted land in what is now as a bounty for his service in the French and Indian War. By 1775, Washington had doubled the size of Mount Vernon to 6,500 acres (26 km²), with over 100 slaves. As a respected military hero and large landowner, he held local office and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, the, beginning in 1758.

Washington first took a leading role in the growing colonial resistance in 1769, when he introduced a proposal drafted by his friend which called for Virginia to boycott imported English goods until the  were repealed. Parliament repealed the Acts in 1770. Washington also took an active interest in helping his fellow citizens. On, Washington wrote a letter to Neil Jameson on behalf of , a merchant from  whose ship had been seized for exporting non-permitted items by the Boston Frigate, and requested his help toward recovery of Plowman's ship. Washington regarded the passage of the in 1774 as "an Invasion of our Rights and Privileges". In July 1774, he chaired the meeting at which the were adopted, which called for, among other things, the convening of a. In August, he attended the, where he was selected as a delegate to the.

American Revolution
After in April 1775, Washington appeared at the  in military uniform, signaling that he was prepared for war. Washington had the prestige, the military experience, the charisma and military bearing, the reputation of being a strong patriot, and he was supported by the South, especially Virginia. Although he did not explicitly seek the office of commander and even claimed that he was not equal to it, there was no serious competition. Congress created the on ; the next day, on the nomination of  of, it selected Washington as commander-in-chief. Washington assumed command of the American forces in Massachusetts in July 1775, during the ongoing. Realizing his army's desperate shortage of gunpowder, Washington asked for new sources. British arsenals were raided (including some in the ) and some manufacturing was attempted; a barely adequate supply (about 2.5 million pounds) was obtained by the end of 1776, mostly from France. Washington reorganized the army during the long standoff, and forced the British to withdraw by putting artillery on overlooking the city. The British and Washington moved his army to.

Although negative toward the patriots in the Continental Congress, British newspapers routinely praised Washington's personal character and qualities as a military commander. Moreover, both sides of the aisle in Parliament found the American general's courage, endurance, and attentiveness to the welfare of his troops worthy of approbation and examples of the virtues they and most other Britons found wanting in their own commanders. Washington's refusal to become involved in politics buttressed his reputation as a man fully committed to the military mission at hand and above the factional fray.



In August 1776, British General launched a massive naval and land  and offer a negotiated settlement. The Continental Army under Washington engaged the enemy for the first time as an army of the newly-declared independent United States at the, the largest battle of the entire war. This and several other British victories (despite some American victories at the and elsewhere) sent Washington scrambling out of New York and across, leaving the future of the Continental Army in doubt. On the night of, , Washington staged a , leading the American forces to capture nearly 1,000  in.

Washington was defeated at the on,. On, Howe outmaneuvered Washington and marched into Philadelphia unopposed. Washington's army the British garrison at  in early October. Meanwhile Burgoyne, out of reach from help from Howe, was trapped and forced to at. As a result of this battle, France entered the war as an open ally of the Americans, turning the Revolution into a major world-wide war. Washington's loss of Philadelphia prompted some members of Congress to discuss removing Washington from command. This failed after Washington's supporters rallied behind him.



Washington's army encamped at in December 1777, where it stayed for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure. The next spring, however, the army emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a full-scale training program supervised by, a veteran of the Prussian general staff. The British evacuated Philadelphia in 1778 and returned to New York City. Meanwhile, Washington remained with his army outside New York. He delivered the final blow in 1781, after a allowed American and French forces to trap a British army in Virginia. The on,  marked the end of fighting. Though known for his successes in the war and of his life that followed, Washington only won three of the nine battles that he fought.



In March 1783, Washington used his influence to disperse a who had threatened to confront Congress regarding their back pay. The (signed that September) recognized the independence of the United States. Washington disbanded his army and, on, gave an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers. On, the , and Washington and the governor took possession. At on, Washington formally bade his officers farewell and on , , he resigned his commission as commander-in-chief, emulating the , an exemplar of the republican ideal of citizen leadership who rejected power.

Washington's retirement to Mount Vernon was short-lived. He was persuaded to attend the in  in the summer of 1787, and he was unanimously elected president of the Convention. He participated little in the debates involved (though he did vote for or against the various articles), but his high prestige maintained collegiality and kept the delegates at their labors. The delegates designed the presidency with Washington in mind, and allowed him to define the office once elected. After the Convention, his support convinced many, including the Virginia legislature, to vote for ratification; the new was ratified by all 13 states.

Presidency: 1789–1797


The elected Washington unanimously in, and again in the ; he remains the only president to receive 100% of electoral votes. was elected. Washington took the oath of office as the first President under the Constitution for the United States of America on, at  in New York City although, at first, he had not wanted the position.

The voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year—a large sum in 1789. Washington, already wealthy, declined the salary, since he valued his image as a selfless public servant. At the urging of Congress, however, he ultimately accepted the payment. A dangerous precedent could have been set otherwise, as the founding fathers wanted future presidents to come from a large pool of potential candidates - not just those citizens that could afford to do the work for free.

Washington attended carefully to the pomp and ceremony of office, making sure that the titles and trappings were suitably republican and never emulated European royal courts. To that end, he preferred the title "Mr. President" to the more majestic names suggested.

Washington proved an able administrator. An excellent delegator and judge of talent and character, he held regular cabinet meetings to debate issues before making a final decision. In handling routine tasks, he was "systematic, orderly, energetic, solicitous of the opinion of others but decisive, intent upon general goals and the consistency of particular actions with them."

Washington reluctantly served a second term as president. He refused to run for a third, establishing the customary policy of a maximum of two terms for a president which later became law by the.

Domestic issues
Washington was not a member of any political party, and hoped that they would not be formed out of fear of the conflict and stagnation they could cause governance. His closest advisors, however, formed two factions, setting the framework for the future. Secretary of Treasury had bold plans to establish the national credit and build a financially powerful nation, and formed the basis of the. Secretary of State, founder of the , strenuously opposed Hamilton's agenda, but Washington favored Hamilton over Jefferson.

In 1791, Congress imposed an on distilled, which led to protests in frontier districts, especially Pennsylvania. By 1794, after Washington ordered the protesters to appear in, the protests turned into full-scale riots known as the. The federal army was too small to be used, so Washington invoked the to summon the militias of Pennsylvania, Virginia and several other states. The governors sent the troops and Washington took command, marching into the rebellious districts. There was no fighting, but Washington's forceful action proved the new government could protect itself. It also was one of only two times that a sitting President would personally command the military in the field: the other was after President fled the burning  in the. These events marked the first time under the new constitution that the federal government used strong military force to exert authority over the states and citizens.

Foreign affairs
In 1793, the revolutionary government of France sent diplomat, called "Citizen Genêt", to America. Genêt issued to American ships so they could capture British merchant ships. He attempted to turn popular sentiment towards American involvement in the French war against Britain by creating a network of in major cities. Washington rejected this interference in domestic affairs, demanded the French government recall Genêt, and denounced his societies.

To normalize trade relations with Britain, remove them from western forts, and resolve financial debts left over from the Revolution, Hamilton and Washington designed the. It was negotiated by, and signed on. The Jeffersonians supported France and strongly attacked the treaty. Washington and Hamilton, however, mobilized public opinion and won ratification by the Senate by emphasizing Washington's support. The British agreed to depart their forts around the, the Canadian-U.S. boundary was adjusted, numerous pre-Revolutionary debts were liquidated, and the British opened their West Indies colonies to American trade. Most importantly, the treaty avoided war with Britain and instead brought a decade of prosperous trade with Britain. It angered the French and became a central issue in political debates.

Supreme Court appointments
George Washington appointed the following Justices to the :
 * - 1789
 * - 1789
 * - 1790
 * - 1790
 * - 1790
 * - 1790
 * - 1792
 * - 1793
 * - 1795
 * (, disputed) - 1796
 * - 1796
 * - 1796

Farewell Address


(issued as a public letter in 1796) was one of the most influential statements of American political values. Drafted primarily by Washington himself, with help from Hamilton, it gives advice on the necessity and importance of national union, the value of the Constitution and the rule of law, the evils of political parties, and the proper virtues of a republican people. In the address, he called morality "a necessary spring of popular government." He said, "reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle" – making the point that the value of religion is for the benefit of society as a whole.

Washington's public political address warned against foreign influence in domestic affairs and American meddling in European affairs. He warned against bitter partisanship in domestic politics and called for men to move beyond partisanship and serve the common good. He called for an America wholly free of foreign attachments, saying the United States must concentrate primarily on American interests. He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but warned against involvement in European wars and entering into long-term "entangling" alliances. The address quickly set American values regarding religion and foreign affairs.

Retirement and death
After retiring from the presidency in March 1797, Washington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. He devoted much time to farming and, in that year, constructed a 2,250 square foot (75-by-30 feet, 200 m²) distillery, which was one of the largest in the new republic, housing five copper stills, a boiler and 50 mash tubs, at the site of one of his unprofitable farms. At its peak, two years later, the distillery produced 11,000 gallons of corn and rye whiskey worth $7,500, and fruit brandy.

In 1798, Washington was appointed in the  (then the highest possible rank) by President. Washington's appointment was to serve as a warning to, with which war seemed imminent.

On, , Washington spent several hours inspecting his farms on horseback, in snow and later hail and freezing rain. He sat down to dine that evening without changing his wet clothes. The next morning, he awoke with a bad cold, fever and a throat infection called that turned into acute  and. Washington died on the evening of, , at his home aged 67, while attended by Dr. , one of his closest friends, and , Washington's personal secretary. Lear would record the account in his journal, writing that Washington's last words were Tis well.

Modern doctors believe that Washington died from either or, since he was  as part of the treatment, a combination of  from the loss of five pints of blood, as well as  and. Washington's remains were buried at. To protect their privacy, Martha Washington burned the correspondence between her husband and herself following his death. Only three letters between the couple have survived.

After Washington's death, Mount Vernon was inherited by his nephew,, a justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.

During the year George Washington was posthumously appointed to the grade of  by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479 on, , approved by President  on , , with an effective appointment date of ,. This made him the highest ranking military officer in U.S. history.

Legacy


Congressman, a Revolutionary War comrade and father of the Civil War general Robert E. Lee, famously eulogized Washington as:
 * First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen, he was second to none in humble and enduring scenes of private life. Pious, just, humane, temperate, and sincere; uniform, dignified, and commanding; his example was as edifying to all around him as were the effects of that example lasting…Correct throughout, vice shuddered in his presence and virtue always felt his fostering hand. The purity of his private character gave effulgence to his public virtues…Such was the man for whom our nation mourns.

Lee's words set the standard by which Washington's overwhelming reputation was impressed upon the American memory. Washington set many precedents for the national government and the presidency in particular.

As early as 1778, Washington was lauded as the ""

He was upheld as a shining example in schoolbooks and lessons: as courageous and farsighted, holding the Continental Army together through eight hard years of war and numerous privations, sometimes by sheer force of will; and as restrained: at war's end taking affront at the notion he should be King; and after two terms as President, stepping aside.

Washington manifested himself as the exemplar of virtue in America. More than any American he was extolled for his great personal integrity, and a deeply held sense of duty, honor and patriotism. He is seen more as a character model than war hero or founding father. One of Washington's greatest achievements, in terms of republican values, was refraining from taking more power than was due. He was conscientious of maintaining a good reputation by avoiding political intrigue. He rejected nepotism or cronyism. Jefferson observed, "The moderation and virtue of a single character probably prevented this Revolution from being closed, as most others have been, by a subversion of that liberty it was intended to establish."

Monuments and memorials




Today, Washington's face and image are often used as national symbols of the United States, along with the icons such as the flag and great seal. Perhaps the most prominent commemoration of his legacy is the use of his image on the and the. Washington, together with, , and , is depicted in stone at the. The, one of the most well-known American landmarks, was built in his honor. The in Alexandria, Virginia, constructed entirely with voluntary contributions from members of the  Fraternity, was also built in his honor.

Many things have been. Washington's name became that of the nation's capital,, and the , the only state to be named after an American (, the Virginias, and  are named in honor of British monarchs). and were named for him, as was  (once Washington Academy), which was renamed due to Washington’s large endowment in 1796.

Washington and slavery
For most of his life, Washington operated his plantations as a typical Virginia slave owner. In the 1760s, he dropped tobacco (which was prestigious but unprofitable) and shifted to wheat growing and diversified into milling flour, weaving cloth, and distilling brandy. By the time of his death, there were 317 slaves at Mount Vernon.

Before the American Revolution, Washington expressed no moral reservations about slavery, but, by 1778, he had stopped selling slaves without their consent because he did not want to break up slave families.

In 1778, while Washington was at war, he wrote to his manager at Mount Vernon that he wished to sell his slaves and "to get quit of negroes", since maintaining a large (and increasingly elderly) slave population was no longer economically efficient. Washington could not legally sell the "dower slaves", however, and because these slaves had long intermarried with his own slaves, he could not sell his slaves without breaking up families.

After the war, Washington often privately expressed a dislike of the institution of slavery. Despite these privately expressed misgivings, Washington never criticized slavery in public. In fact, as President, Washington brought nine household slaves to the Executive Mansion in Philadelphia. By Pennsylvania law, slaves who resided in the state became legally free after six months. Washington rotated his household slaves between Mount Vernon and Philadelphia so that they did not earn their freedom, a scheme he attempted to keep hidden from his slaves and the public and one which was, in fact, against the law.

Washington was the only prominent, slaveholding Founding Father to emancipate his slaves. He did not free his slaves in his lifetime, however, but instead included a provision in his will to free his slaves upon the death of his wife. It is important to understand that not all the slaves at his estate at Mt. Vernon were owned by him. His wife Martha owned a large number of slaves and Washington did not feel that he could unilaterally free slaves that came to Mt. Vernon from his wife's estate. His actions were influenced by his close relationship with. Martha Washington would free slaves to which she had title late in her own life. He did not speak out publicly against slavery, argues historian Dorothy Twohig, because he did not wish to risk splitting apart the young republic over what was already a sensitive and divisive issue.

Sullivan Expedition
Although rarely discussed, Washington was held in high disregard by the local population, who referred to him as "" after his actions in many  villages. The Iroquois sided with the British in both the French and Indian War and the American Revolution. In a letter from, , George Washington sent instructions to Major General , in Alexander Hamilton's handwriting, that Sullivan was "to lay waste all the [Iroquois] settlements around with instructions to do it in the most effectual manner, that the country many not be merely overrun but destroyed...you will not by any means, listen to any overture of peace before the total ruin of their settlements is effected." His reasons for doing this were "because whites were scared of Indians". "Our future security will be in their inability to injure us... and in the terror with which the severity of the chastisement they receive will inspire them...When we have effectually chastised them we may then listen to peace and endeavor to draw further advantages from their fears." This "chastisement" included skinning the bodies of some Indians "from the hips downward, to make boot tops or leggings." Ten years later, an Iroquois man told Washington to his face that "to this day, when that name [Washington] is heard, our women look behind them and turn pale, and our children cling close to the necks of their mothers."

Religious beliefs
Washington was d into the. In 1765, when the Church of England was still the, he served on the (lay council) for his local church. Throughout his life, he spoke of the value of righteousness, and of seeking and offering thanks for the "blessings of Heaven."

In a letter to in 1785, Washington wrote that he was not among those alarmed by a bill "making people pay towards the support of that [religion] which they profess," but felt that it was "impolitic" to pass such a measure, and wished it had never been proposed, believing that it would disturb public tranquility.

His adopted daughter, Nelly Custis Lewis, stated: "I have heard her [Nelly's mother, Eleanor Calvert Custis, who resided in Mount Vernon for two years] say that General Washington always received the sacrament with my grandmother [Martha Washington] before the revolution." After the revolution, Washington frequently accompanied his wife to Christian church services; however, there is no record of his ever taking communion, and he would regularly leave services before communion—with the other non-communicants (as was the custom of the day), until he ceased attending at all on communion Sundays. Prior to communion, believers are admonished to take stock of their spiritual lives and not to participate in the ceremony unless he finds himself in the will of God. Historians and biographers continue to debate the degree to which he can be counted as a Christian, and the degree to which he was a.

He was an early supporter of and. In 1775, he ordered that his troops not show anti-Catholic sentiments by burning the pope in effigy on. When hiring workmen for Mount Vernon, he wrote to his agent, "If they be good workmen, they may be from Asia, Africa, or Europe; they may be, Jews, or Christians of any sect, or they may be Atheists." In 1790, he wrote a response to a letter from the, in which he said that as long as people remain good citizens, their faith does not matter. This was a relief to the Jewish community of the United States, since the Jews had been either expelled from or prejudiced against in many European countries.

Personal life
Though Washington had no children, he did have two nephews. became an, and was a long-time congressman in both  and.

Washington suffered from problems with his teeth throughout his life. He lost his first tooth when he was twenty-two and had only one left by the time he became President. According to, he lost them because he used them to crack Brazil nuts, although modern historians suggest it was probably the he was given to treat illnesses such as  and. He had several sets of false teeth made, four of them by a dentist called John Greenwood. Contrary to popular belief, none of the sets were made from wood. The set made when he became President was carved from hippopotamus and elephant ivory, held together with gold springs. The hippo ivory was used for the plate, into which real human teeth and also bits of horses and donkeys teeth were inserted. Dental problems left Washington in constant discomfort, for which he took, and this distress may be apparent in many of the portraits painted while he was still in office, including the one still used on the $1 bill.

As a young man, Washington had red hair. A popular myth is that he wore a wig, as was the fashion among some at the time. Washington did not wear a wig; instead he powdered his hair, as represented in several portraits, including the well-known unfinished depiction.

One of the most enduring myths about George Washington involves him as a young boy chopping down his father's cherry tree and, when asked about it, using the famous line "I cannot tell a lie, I did it with my little hatchet." In fact, there is no evidence that this ever occurred. It was part of a book of stories authored by who was trying to humanize Washington and endow him with great moral fortitude.

Famous quotations
"Ninety-nine percent of the failures come from people who have the habit of making excuses."

"Few men have virtue to withstand the highest bidder."

"I hope I shall always possess firmness and virtue enough to maintain what I consider the most enviable of all titles, the character of an 'Honest Man.'"

"The preservation of the sacred fire of liberty and the destiny of the republican model of government are justly considered... deeply, ...finally, staked on the experiment entrusted to the hands of the American people."

"Labor to keep alive in your breast that little spark of celestial fire, called conscience."

"Be courteous to all, but intimate with few, and let those few be well tried before you give them your confidence. True friendship is a plant of slow grow, and must undergo and withstand the shocks of adversity before it is entitled to the appellation."

"Government is not reason, it is not eloquence, it is force; like fire, a troublesome servant and a fearful master. Never for a moment should it be left to irresponsible action."

References: biographies

 * Buchanan, John. The Road to Valley Forge: How Washington Built the Army That Won the Revolution (2004). 368 pp.
 * Burns, James MacGregor and Dunn, Susan. George Washington. Times, 2004. 185 pp. explore leadership style
 * Cunliffe, Marcus. George Washington: Man and Monument (1958), explores both the biography and the myth
 * Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. George! A Guide to All Things Washington. Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-0-2. Grizzard is a leading scholar of Washington.
 * Hirschfeld, Fritz. George Washington and Slavery: A Documentary Portrayal. University of Missouri Press, 1997.
 * His Excellency: George Washington. (2004) ISBN 1-4000-4031-0. Acclaimed interpretation of Washington's career.
 * Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism. (1994) the leading scholarly history of the 1790s.
 * Ferling, John E. The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (1989). Biography from a leading scholar.
 * Fischer, David Hackett. Washington's Crossing. (2004), prize-winning military history focused on 1775-1776.
 * Flexner, James Thomas. Washington: The Indispensable Man. (1974). ISBN 0-316-28616-8 (1994 reissue). Single-volume condensation of Flexner's popular four-volume biography.
 * George Washington: A Biography. 7 volumes, 1948–1957. The standard scholarly biography, winner of the Pulitzer Prize. A single-volume abridgement by Richard Harwell appeared in 1968
 * Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. George Washington: A Biographical Companion. ABC-CLIO, 2002. 436 pp. Comprehensive encyclopedia by leading scholar
 * Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. The Ways of Providence: Religion and George Washington. Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-1-0.
 * Higginbotham, Don, ed. George Washington Reconsidered. University Press of Virginia, (2001). 336 pp of essays by scholars
 * Higginbotham, Don. George Washington: Uniting a Nation. Rowman & Littlefield, (2002). 175 pp.
 * Hofstra, Warren R., ed. George Washington and the Virginia Backcountry. Madison House, 1998. Essays on Washington's formative years.
 * Lengel, Edward G. General George Washington: A Military Life. New York: Random House, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-6081-8.
 * Lodge, Henry Cabot. George Washington, 2 vols. (1889), vol 1 at Gutenberg; vol 2 at Gutenberg
 * McDonald, Forrest. The Presidency of George Washington. 1988. Intellectual history showing Washington as exemplar of republicanism.
 * Patriarch: George Washington and the New American Nation Focuses on last 10 years of Washington's life.
 * Spalding, Matthew. "George Washington's Farewell Address." The Wilson Quarterly v20#4 (Autumn 1996) pp: 65+.
 * Stritof, Sheri and Bob. "George and Martha Washington" http://marriage.about.com/od/presidentialmarriages/p/gwashington.htm
 * Wiencek, Henry. An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America. (2003).

Scholarly studies

 * Achenbach, Joel. The Grand Idea: George Washington's Potomac and the Race to the West. 2004. 384 pp.
 * Bickham, Troy O. "Sympathizing with Sedition? George Washington, the British Press, and British Attitudes During the American War of Independence." William and Mary Quarterly 2002 59(1): 101-122. ISSN 0043-5597 Fulltext online in History Cooperative
 * Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism. (1994) the leading scholarly history of the 1790s.
 * Estes, Todd. "The Art of Presidential Leadership: George Washington and the Jay Treaty" Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 2001 109(2): 127-158. ISSN 0042-6636 Abstract: As protests from treaty opponents intensified in 1795, Washington's initial neutral position shifted to a solid pro-treaty stance. It was he who had the greatest impact on public and congressional opinion. With the assistance of Hamilton, Washington made tactical decisions that strengthened the Federalist campaign to mobilize support for the treaty. For example, he effectively delayed the treaty's submission to the House of Representatives until public support was particularly strong in February 1796 and refocused the debate by dismissing as unconstitutional the request that all documentation relating to Jay's negotiations be placed before Congress. Washington's prestige and political skills applied popular political pressure to Congress and ultimately led to approval of the treaty's funding in April 1796. His role in the debates demonstrated a "hidden-hand" leadership in which he issued public messages, delegated to advisers, and used his personality and the power of office to broaden support.
 * Ferling, John. Setting the World Ablaze: Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and the American Revolution. Oxford U. Press, 2000. 392 pp by leading scholar
 * Fishman, Ethan M.; William D. Pederson, Mark J. Rozell, eds. George Washington (2001) essays by scholars
 * Gregg II, Gary L. and Matthew Spalding, eds. George Washington and the American Political Tradition. ISI (1999), essays by scholars
 * Harvey, Tamara and O'Brien, Greg, ed. George Washington's South. U. Press of Florida, 2004. 355 pp. essays by scholars on the region, esp. Virginia
 * Leibiger, Stuart. "Founding Friendship: George Washington, James Madison, and the Creation of the American Republic." U. Press of Virginia, 1999. 284 pp.
 * McCullough, David. 1776 2005. 386 pp. very well written overview of the year in America
 * Miller, John C. The Federalist Era, 1789-1801 (1960), political survey of 1790s.
 * Muñoz, Vincent Phillip. "George Washington on Religious Liberty" Review of Politics 2003 65(1): 11-33. ISSN 0034-6705 Abstract: Article argues GW articulated a much narrower definition of religious liberty than Jefferson or Madison. Although GW believed in religious freedom, he counseled that its exercise must be limited by the duties of republican citizenship. He viewed religion and morality as indispensable parts of both a political system and an involved citizenry. Religion, therefore, deserved the support of those in government. At the same time, however, he wrote that the expression of religion should be free from government hindrance unless it interfered with the duties of citizenship.
 * Peterson, Barbara Bennett. George Washington: America's Moral Exemplar, 2005.
 * Schwarz, Philip J., ed. "Slavery at the Home of George Washington." Mount Vernon Ladies' Assoc., 2001. 182 pp.
 * Washington, George and Marvin Kitman. George Washington's Expense Account. Grove Press. (2001) ISBN 0-8021-3773-3 Account pages, with added humor; GW took no salary but he was repaid all his expenses
 * White, Leonard D. The Federalists: A Study in Administrative History (1956), thorough analysis of the mechanics of government in 1790s