Buddhism



Buddhism is often described as a and a collection of various, based initially on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as. To many, however, Buddhism is not a religion, nor a philosophy or a set of doctrines, but rather teachings to guide one to directly experiencing. Buddhism is also known as, which means roughly the "teachings of the Awakened One" in and , languages of ancient. Buddhism began around E with the teachings of, who was born in , and is hereafter referred to as "the Buddha."

Origin
For a more extensive description, see .

Gautama, whose personal name according to later sources was Siddhartha, was born in. It is believed that he was born in the city of and raised in, near the modern town of Taulihawa, Nepal. The traditional story of his life is as follows; little of this can be regarded as established historical fact. Born a prince, his father, King, was supposedly visited by a wise man shortly after Siddhartha was born and told that Siddhartha would either become a great king or a holy man. Determined to make Siddhartha a king, the father tried to shield his son from the unpleasant realities of daily life. Despite his father's efforts, at the age of 29, he discovered the suffering of his people, first through an encounter with an elderly man. On subsequent trips outside the palace, he encountered various sufferings such as a d man, a decaying, and an. These are often termed 'The Four Sights.'

Gautama, deeply depressed by these sights, sought to overcome old age, illness, and death by living the life of an ascetic. Gautama escaped his palace, leaving behind this royal life to become a. For a time on his spiritual quest, Buddha "experimented with extreme asceticism, which at that time was seen as a powerful spiritual practice...such as fasting, holding the breath, and exposure of the body to pain...he found, however, that these ascetic practices brought no genuine spiritual benefits and in fact, being based on self-hatred, that they were counterproductive."

After abandoning asceticism and concentrating instead upon meditation and (awareness of breathing in and out), Gautama is said to have discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way—a path of moderation that lies mid-way between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. He accepted a little milk and rice pudding from a village girl and then, sitting under a pipal tree or, (Ficus religiosa), now known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. His five companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After 49 days meditating, at the age of 35, he attained, also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West. After his attainment of bodhi he was known as or  and spent the rest of his life teaching his insights. According to scholars, he lived around the fifth century, but his more exact birthdate is open to debate. He died around the age of 80 in (Pali Kusinara) (India).

Divisions
The original teachings and monastic organization established by Buddha have been referred to as, but all the current divisions within Buddhism are too much influenced by later history to warrant inclusion under this name. The most frequently used classification of present-day Buddhism among scholars divides present-day adherents into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: ', ' and .

An alternative scheme used by some scholars has two divisions,  and. In this classification, Mahayana includes both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. This scheme is the one ordinarily used in the English language. Some scholars use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes.

Buddhism today
Buddhism had become virtually extinct in India, and although it continued to in surrounding countries, its influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength. While range from 230 to 500 million worldwide, most estimates are around 350 million, or 310 million. However, are uncertain for several countries. According to one analysis, Buddhism is the fourth-largest behind, , and. The monks' order, which began during the lifetime of the Buddha in India, is among the oldest organizations on earth.

At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organised and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognised as one of the growing spiritual influences. (see )
 * Buddhism, using as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in, , , , and . Also the  in  (inspired by ) practices Theravada.
 * East Asian forms of Buddhism that use scriptures in  are dominant in most of, , , ,  and  as well as within Chinese and Japanese communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West.
 * Tibetan Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in the ethnically regions of  and the surrounding areas in, , , , and the.
 * Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated to some eastern tradition listed above. An exception is the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, though they can be considered Mahayanist in a broad sense.

See also

Some teachings
Other teachings can be found in the sections below on early Buddhsim and the main traditions, and also in separate articles on, , , and.

In Theravada Buddhism, any person who has awakened from the "sleep of ignorance" (by directly realizing the true nature of ), without instruction, and teaches it to others is called a, while those who achieve realisations but do not teach others are called s. All traditional Buddhists agree that Shakyamuni or Gotama Buddha was not the only Buddha: it is generally taught that there have been many past Buddhas and that there will be future Buddhas too. If a person achieves this awakening, he or she is called an. , the Buddha, is thus only one among other buddhas before or after him. His teachings are oriented toward the attainment of this kind of awakening, also called, or.

Part of the teachings ascribed to the Buddha regarding the holy life and the goal of liberation is constituted by the, which focus on , a term that refers to or the unhappiness ultimately characteristic of unawakened, worldly life. The Four Noble Truths regarding suffering state what is its nature, its cause, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation. This way to the cessation of suffering is called, which is one of the fundamentals of Buddhist or  life.

Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of the Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain doctrines that are common to the majority of schools and traditions in Buddhism, though only Theravada regards all of them as central. Few valid generalizations are possible about all Buddhists.

Bodhi


Bodhi ( and बॊधि, lit. awakening) is a term applied in Buddhism to the experience of Awakening of, including Buddhas. When used in a generic sense, a is generally considered to be a  who discovers the true  through (lifetimes of) spiritual cultivation,  of the various religious practices of his time, and. This transformational discovery is called, which literally means "awakening", but is more commonly called "enlightenment".

In, Bodhi carries a meaning synonymous to , using only some different metaphors to describe the experience, which implied the extinction of raga (greed), dosa (hate) and moha (delusion). In the later school of Mahayana Buddhism, the status of nirvana was downgraded, coming to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained Nirvana, and that one needed the additional and higher attainment of Bodhi to eradicate delusion. The result is that according to Mahayana Buddhism, the attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while the Bodhisattva attains Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, Bodhi and Nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate and delusion. The Arahant according to Theravada doctrine, has thus overcome greed, hatred, and delusion, attaining Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, the extinction of only greed and hatred, while a residue of delusion remains, is called.

Bodhi is attained when the are fully grasped, and all  has reached cessation. Although the earliest sources do not have any mention of Paramitas, the later traditions of Theravada and Mahayana state that one also needs to fulfill the s to their highest levels. After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the compulsive cycle of : birth, suffering, death and rebirth, and attains the "highest happiness" (Nirvana, as described in the ). Belief in self (, Pāli attā) has also been extinguished as part of the eradication of delusion, and Bodhi thus implies understanding of (Sanskrit: Anatman).

Some Mahayana sources contain the idea that a bodhisattva, which in other Mahayana sources and Theravada is someone on the path to Buddhahood, deliberately refrains from becoming a Buddha in order to help others.

According to a saying in one of the, if a person does not aim for Bodhi, one lives one's life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.

Middle Way
The primary guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the which was discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment (). The Middle Way or Middle Path has several definitions:
 * 1) It is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification.
 * 2) It also refers to taking a middle ground between certain views, e.g. that things ultimately either exist or do not exist.
 * 3) An explanation of the state of and perfect enlightenment where all dualities fuse and cease to exist as separate entities (see ).

Refuge in the Three Jewels


Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in the Noble Eightfold Path requires taking, as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's (: त्रिरत्न Triratna or रत्नत्रय Ratna-traya, : तिरतन Tiratana). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the. The person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge. This is considered the ultimate expression of compassion in Buddhism.

The Three Jewels are:
 * The  (i.e.,Awakened One). This is a title for those who attained Awakening similar to the Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also the and . The Buddha could also be represented as the wisdom that understands Dharma, and in this regard the Buddha represents the perfect wisdom that sees reality in its true form.
 * The : The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). It can also (especially in Mahayana Buddhism) connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha.
 * The : This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna &mdash;one who has entered the stream to enlightenment). According to some modern Buddhists, it also consists of laymen and laywomen, the caretakers of the monks, those who have accepted parts of the monastic code but who have not been ordained as monks or nuns.

According to the scriptures, presented himself as a model, however, he did not ask his followers to have faith (Sanskrit श्रद्धा , Pāli saddhā) in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. Instead, he continually encouraged them to put his teachings to the test and only accept what they could verify on their own. The, i.e. the teaching of the Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The (Buddhist Order of monks) provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a being beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the himself.

Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the, although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the , the and the , also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma.

The Four Noble Truths
According to the scriptures, the Buddha taught that in life there exists, which is in essence sorrow/suffering, that is caused by and it can be brought to cessation by following the  (Sanskrit: , Pāli: ). This teaching is called the Catvāry Āryasatyāni (Pali: ), or the "".


 * 1) There is suffering
 * 2) There is a cause of suffering&mdash;
 * 3) There is the cessation of suffering
 * 4) There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering&mdash;the

According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were among the topics of the first sermon given by the after his enlightenment, which was given to the five ascetics with whom he had practised. The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by the Buddha not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at that time. The early teaching and the traditional understanding in the Theravada is that these are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. The Mahayana position is that they are a preliminary teaching for people not yet ready for the higher and more expansive Mahayana teachings.

The Noble Eightfold Path
The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. This is divided into three sections: (which concerns wholesome physical actions),  (which concerns the meditative concentration of the mind) and  (which concerns spiritual insight into the true nature of all things).

 is morality&mdash;abstaining from unwholesome deeds of body and speech. Within the division of sila are three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:


 * 1) Right Speech&mdash;One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way 
 * 2) Right Actions&mdash;Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm 
 * 3) Right Livelihood&mdash;One's way of livelihood does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly 

 is developing mastery over one’s own mind. Within this division are another three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:


 * 1) Right Effort/Exercise&mdash;One makes an effort to improve 
 * 2) Right Mindfulness/Awareness&mdash;Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness 
 * 3) Right Concentration/Meditation&mdash;Being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion. 

 is the wisdom which purifies the mind. Within this division fall two more parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:


 * 1) Right Understanding&mdash;Understanding reality as it is, not just as it appears to be. 
 * 2) Right Thoughts&mdash;Change in the pattern of thinking. 

The word samyak means "perfect". There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorize the Eightfold Path into ' (Pāli paññā, wisdom), ' (Pāli sīla, virtuous behavior) and  (concentration).

Śīla: (Moral cultivation and the precepts)
 or sīla  is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi, and panya) and the second. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of śīla are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions.

Śīla is the foundation of Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internally, but also peace in the community, which is externally. According to the Law of Kamma, keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes which would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence.

Śīla refers to overall (principles of) ethical behavior. There are several levels of sila, which correspond to 'basic morality', 'basic morality with asceticism' , 'novice monkhood' and 'monkhood' ( or ). Lay people generally undertake to live by the which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the, which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism.

The are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.


 * 1. To refrain from taking life. (i.e. non-violence towards life forms)
 * 2. To refrain from taking that which is not given (i.e. not committing )
 * 3. To refrain from sensual misconduct (abstinence from immoral sexual behavior)
 * 4. To refrain from lying. (i.e. speaking truth always)
 * 5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of (refrain from using drugs or alcohol)

In the, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of.

The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:


 * 6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise to noon)
 * 7. To refrain from dancing, using jewelery, going to shows, etc.
 * 8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.

is the specific moral code for monks. It includes the, a set of 227 rules in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. use the, which are the basic precepts for monastics.

In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for, where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and  is actively encouraged (see ).

Samādhi/Bhāvanā (Meditative cultivation)
In the language of the, samyaksamādhi is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating samādhi is meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. (Sanskrit: śamatha) and (Sanskrit: vipaśyanā). Upon development of samādhi, one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.

Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (, Sanskrit ध्यान dhyāna), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.

starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana.

In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to ' (Pāli ' knowledge), ' (Pāli paññā pure understanding) and thus can lead to ' (Pāli nibbāna). When one is in , it is nibbāna, albeit only temporary because in these states, all defilements are suppressed. Only  or vipassana eradicates the defilements completely. Jhanas are also resting states which arahants abide in order to rest.

Prajñā (Wisdom)
Prajñā or paññā  means wisdom that is based on a realization of,  and. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining, through its revelation of the true nature of all things as (unsatisfactory),  (impermanence) and  (devoid of self). Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six of the Mahayana.

Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. The Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon, many attaining nirvana upon hearing the Buddha's discourse.

Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight (, vipaśyanā) meditation  to attain such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain nirvana at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.

Buddhism and intellectualism
According to the, in his lifetime, the Buddha refused to answer several philosophical questions. On issues such as whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the, complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death etc, the Buddha had remained silent. One explanation for this is that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing. Another is that such questions assume the reality of world/self/person.

In the Pali Canon and numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: Reality transcends all worldly concepts. The "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, faith in and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself.

The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", the, insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" also emphasises how Buddhic Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ...." Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist and teacher   discouraged any intellectual activity in his.

Buddhist scholars have produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts. See e.g., and. Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, but most regard it as having a place, at least for some people at some stages.

History of Buddhism
The may be divided into the following five periods:
 * 1)  (also called ); Professor Nakamura subdivides this into two subperiods:
 * 2) original Buddhism
 * 3) early Buddhism
 * 4) Period of the  (also called Sectarian Buddhism, )
 * 5) Early
 * 6) Later Mahayana Buddhism
 * 7)  (also called Esoteric Buddhism)

It must be remembered that these developments are not always consecutive. For example, the early schools continued to exist alongside Mahayana. Indeed, some scholars have argued that Mahayana remained marginal for centuries.

Early Buddhism
The term Early Buddhism can be applied to both and the Buddhism of the.

Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka
The earliest phase of Buddhism (pre-sectarian Buddhism) recognized by nearly all scholars (the main exception is Dr Gregory Schopen, ) is based on a comparison of the with surviving portions of other early canons. Its main scriptures are the and the four principal s or s. Various scholars have stated that parts of the contents of the Pali Canon can (probably) be attributed to Gautama Buddha.

The central teachings can be classified under the following three headings.


 * the
 * the
 * the

Rebirth has no discernible beginning, and takes place in a variety of types of life, later formally classified as the Five or.

The karma of good and bad deeds produces "rewards" and "punishments" either in this life or in a subsequent one. These may be either rebirths themselves or events therein. The content of bad deeds and the lower types of good deeds belongs to the subject of or conduct. Higher rebirths can be attained by the practice of forms of meditation later classified as or.

Sutta Nipata
Some, particularly in, have maintained a theory of an original Buddhism based mainly on the , which they consider the earliest scripture. The late Professor Nakamura summarized its main differences from the phase above in the following eight points.


 * 1) standard technical terms seldom used
 * 2) "dogmas" seldom taught
 * 3) many prose sentences in the  date from after
 * 4) monks mainly solitary, monasteries scarcely mentioned
 * 5) ascetic lifestyle fairly different from later monastic
 * 6) no nuns
 * 7) the  did not exist
 * 8) no special glorification of Buddha; all arahants equal

Councils
According to the scriptures, soon after the (Pāli: parinibbāna, "complete extinguishment") of the Buddha, the  was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teaching to ensure that no errors occur in oral transmission. In the first council,, a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses (, Pāli suttas) of the Buddha, and, according to some sources, the abhidhamma. , another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya). Scholars regard the traditional accounts of the council as greatly exaggerated if not entirely fictitious.

Schisms
These schisms occurred within the, at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school.

Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya, and monks following different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.

Further developments


Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the emperor, who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more Buddhist religious memorials and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of  and, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of  south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.

This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the, emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread "Dhamma", particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring , and even farther to kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the, and to the development of the of. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were, or were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries.

Rise of Mahayana Buddhism
The precise geographical origins of are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahayana developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the (within present-day northern ), and in areas within the  Empire, including  to the south-east (in present-day ), to the west around the port of  (present-day, a town near ), and around the various cave complexes, such as  and  (in present-day  and ). Some scholars have argued that Mahayana was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stupa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a were used to preach Buddhism to the masses. Other scholar reject this theory. The Sangha, at the same time, became increasingly fragmented both in terms of and  practice. The Mahayana movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of influence from. Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Sangha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the school and the  school, both of which were widespread in the Kushan Empire, seem to have had major influence.

Mahayana Buddhism generally regards as its most important teaching the path of the. This already existed as a possibility in earlier Buddhism, as it still does in Theravada today, but the Mahayana gave it an increasing emphasis, eventually saying everyone should follow it.

Around 100 CE, the Kushan emperor is said to have convened what many western scholars call the fourth Buddhist council. This council is not recognised by the Theravada line of Buddhism. According to Mahayana sources, this council did not simply rely on the original. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the, an early version of the and the  were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for all beings (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattvas who embody the indwelling yet transcendent  who strive to achieve such a goal. However, most western scholars believe this council was purely Sarvastivada, while the late Monseigneur Professor Lamotte considered it entirely fictitious. The new scriptures were first written in or one of the s. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana would spread from India to, and towards the north to  and then east to  where Mahayana was  and this Sinicized Mahayana would be passed on to ,  and finally to  in 538 CE. The East Asians would go on to write more indigenous sutras and commentaries to the Mahayana Canon.

Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from (perhaps c.150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. Some of the writings attributed to him made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the sūtras. Completely repudiating the then-and-there-dominant school, which argued for the existence of  (factors of existence) in past, present, and future, Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be  (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly  (no-self) and  (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the.

After the end of the, Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the s (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the in north-eastern India. Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna, was reformulated by scholars such as and  and were adapted into the  (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna theology in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.

Emergence of the Vajrayāna
There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to, , Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nālandā tradition.

In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject, professor Ronald M. Davidson argues that the rise of Vajrayana was in part a reaction to the changing political climate in India at the time. With the fall of the dynasty, in an increasingly fractious political environment, institutional Buddhism had difficulty attracting patronage, and the folk movement led by  became more prominent. After perhaps two hundred years, it had begun to get integrated into the monastic establishment.

Although it continued to in surrounding countries, over the centuries Buddhism gradually declined in India and it was virtually extinct there by the time of the British conquest.

Main traditions


The most common way scholars categorize Buddhist schools follows the major languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist in, (also found in  translation) and  collections, along with some texts that still exist in  and. This is a useful division for practical purposes, but does not necessarily correspond to philosophical or doctrinal divisions since, despite the differences, there are :
 * All accept as their teacher.
 * All accept the, , the and the , in theory, though in practice these have little or no importance in some traditions.
 * All accept that both the members of the laity and of the Sangha can pursue the path toward enlightenment.
 * All consider Buddhahood to be the highest attainment.

Southern (Theravāda) Buddhism
 ("Doctrine of the Elders") is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. This school is derived from the grouping which emerged amongst the older  group at the time of the Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE). This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive.

The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the  and its commentaries. After being orally transmitted for four centuries, its scriptures, the Pali Canon, were finally committed to writing between 35 and 32 BCE,in Sri Lanka, at what the Theravada reckon as the fourth council. It is also one of the first Buddhist schools to commit the complete set of its canon into writing. The collections and  texts of the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the ), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.

Theravada promotes the concept of, literally "Teaching of Analysis". This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith.

Theravāda teaches one to encourage wholesome states of mind, avoid unwholesome states of mind, and to train the mind in. The experience of suffering is caused by mental defilements like greed, aversion and delusion. The goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the. This is attained in the achievement of, or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness and death.

Theravāda is primarily practiced today in, , , , as well as small portions of , ,  and. It has a growing presence in and.

Eastern (East Asian) Buddhism


 (";Great Vehicle") is an inclusive, cosmically-dimensioned faith characterized by the adoption of additional texts, seen as ultimately transcending the Pali suttas, and a shift in the understanding of Buddhism. It goes beyond the traditional early Buddhist orientation of release from individual suffering and the striving for personal emancipation characteristic of the, to a vow to liberate all beings without exception from suffering and with an attendant elevation of the Buddha to a God-like status as an eternal, omnipresent, all-knowing liberational being. Mahayana is further typified by a pantheon of quasi-divine devoting themselves to personal excellence for the sake of rescuing others from suffering. The quest of the Bodhisattvas is for ultimate Buddhic knowledge so as to be able to effect the salvation of all humanity (and indeed all living beings, including animals, ghosts and gods).

The Mahayana branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion (maha-karuna) or the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the Bodhisattva to attain the "Awakened Mind" of Buddhahood so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most effectively to lead all sentient beings into. Emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness, perfected spiritual insight and  (the deathless , or Buddhic Essence, inherent in all beings and creatures). The teaching of the tathagatagarbha is said by the Buddha in the tathagatagarbha sutras to constitute the "absolutely final culmination" of his Dharma&mdash;the highest presentation of Truth. The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalist.

In addition to the scriptures, which (within Mahayana) are viewed as valid but only provisional or basic, Mahayana schools recognize all or part of a genre of. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself, and faith in and veneration of those texts are stated in some sutras (e.g. the and the ) to lay the foundations for the later attainment of Buddhahood itself.

Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.

Native Eastern Buddhism is practiced today in, , , , parts of and most of. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Northern Buddhism. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, which in most of this area are fused into a single unified form of Buddhism. However, in Japan they form separate denominations. The five major ones are the following.
 * , peculiar to Japan
 * , a form of Vajrayana
 * , peculiar to Japan
 * , a form of Vajrayana

Ch'an (Chinese) or Zen (Japanese) Buddhism (whose name is derived from the Sanskrit term, dhyana - "meditation") is a form of Buddhism that became strong in China and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation. Charles S. Prebish writes (in his Historical Dictionary of Buddhism, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, 1993, p. 287): "Although a variety of Zen 'schools' developed in Japan, they all emphasize Zen as a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts, that provides the potential for direct realization, that the realization attained is none other than the possessed by each sentient being ...". Zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to Truth. Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai and Soto, the former greatly favouring the use in meditation of the (meditative riddle or puzzle) as a device for spiritual break-through, and the latter (while certainly employing koans) focussing more on shikantaza or "just sitting". Prebish comments (op. cit., p. 244): "It presumes that sitting in meditation itself (i.e. zazen) is an expression of Buddha nature." The method is to detach the mind from conceptual modes of thinking and perceive Reality directly. Speaking of Zen in general, Buddhist scholar Stephen Hodge writes (Zen Masterclass, Godsfield Press, 2002, pp. 12–13): "... practitioners of Zen believe that Enlightenment, the awakening of the Buddha-mind or Buddha-nature, is our natural state, but has been covered over by layers of negative emotions and distorted thoughts. According to this view, Enlightenment is not something that we must acquire a bit at a time, but a state that can occur instantly when we cut through the dense veil of mental and emotional obscurations." Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox, in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the penetration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self, which is equated with the Buddha himself (Critical Sermons on the Zen Tradition, Hisamatsu Shin'ichi, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2002, passim). Commenting on Rinzai Zen and its Chinese founder, Linji, Hisamatsu states: "Linji indicates our true way of being in such direct expressions as 'True Person' and 'True Self'. It is independent of words or letters and transmitted apart from scriptural teaching. Buddhism doesn't really need scriptures. It is just our direct awakening to Self ..." (Hisamatsu, op. cit., p. 46). This method of self-exertion or "self-power" - without reliance on an external force or being - stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, "Pure Land", which is characterised by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of Amida Buddha.

Pure Land Buddhism (sometimes called Shin Buddhism) is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in Buddha and the chanting of his name will provide the spiritual energy that will liberate one at death into the "happy land" (sukhavati) or "pure land" of Amitabha (also called Amida) Buddha. This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only people will have faith in the power of that limitless great Vow, or will utter the liberational chant of Amida's name.

Northern (Tibetan) Buddhism


Though thoroughly based upon, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is sometimes characterized as  or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Buddhism, or  Buddhism). It therefore accepts all the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of, some of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon.

Buddhist texts
Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of is known in  as the  and in  as the Tipitaka. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:


 * The , containing disciplinary rules for the s of Buddhist s and s, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
 * The  (Pāli: ), contains the actual discourses of.
 * The  (Pāli: ) contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings.

According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings&mdash; (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli)&mdash;and codify monastic rules (Vinaya). , the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and according to some sources the abhidhamma, and, another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects.

The and other  traditionally believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also known as the after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Other texts, such as the, are also considered by some to be the word of the Buddha, but supposedly either were transmitted in secret, or via lineages of mythical beings (such as the ), or came directly from other s or s. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in or  translations.

The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli sutras, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the.

Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the Pali canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali canon represents the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma&mdash;and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Canon or its commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada.

For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but from the Mahayana standpoint the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the path. That path is explained to be built upon the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but Buddhahood itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name Mahāyāna (lit., the Great Vehicle), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The "Great" of "Maha-yana" is indeed typical of much of this version of Buddhism&mdash;from the physical bigness (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow (to strive for all future time to help free all other persons and creatures from pain), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "Great Self" (mahatman) in the sphere of "Great Nirvana" (mahanirvana). For Theravadins and many scholars, however, the self-proclaimed "greatness" of the does not make them a true account of the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha.

Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. However, scholars have referred to the and the first four Nikayas of the  as the common core of all Buddhist traditions. The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer ) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.

Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the was championed as a unifying scripture.

collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen&mdash;along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the &mdash;into his in the 1920s. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his “The Buddha and His Dhamma”. Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions.

Buddhist symbols
The eight auspicious symbols of Mahayana and Vajrayana are:
 * the Parasol (Umbrella)
 * the Golden Fish
 * the Treasure Vase
 * the Lotus
 * the Conch Shell
 * the
 * the Victory Banner
 * the

Comparative study
Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine, is Buddhism's primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand, Buddhist emphasis on the not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history.

List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies


 * (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)
 * (Buddhism, mysticism, and monotheism)
 * (Buddhism and Western philosophy)
 * (Buddhism and ethics)
 * (Buddhism and science)
 * (Buddhism and ethics)
 * (Buddhism and science)

Suggested reading
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 * Also available on-line:
 * Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed), The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists, Ronald Press, New York, 1956; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; distibuted by Wisdom Books
 * ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
 * ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.
 * ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.
 * ISBN 0-86171-133-5.
 * Wei, Wei Wu,"Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra", Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, 1960.
 * Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series/ Delhi/ Indian Books Centre
 * Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed), The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists, Ronald Press, New York, 1956; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; distibuted by Wisdom Books
 * ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
 * ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.
 * ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.
 * ISBN 0-86171-133-5.
 * Wei, Wei Wu,"Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra", Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, 1960.
 * Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series/ Delhi/ Indian Books Centre
 * ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
 * ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.
 * ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.
 * ISBN 0-86171-133-5.
 * Wei, Wei Wu,"Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra", Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, 1960.
 * Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series/ Delhi/ Indian Books Centre
 * Wei, Wei Wu,"Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra", Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, 1960.
 * Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series/ Delhi/ Indian Books Centre
 * Jewels of the Doctrine (Buddhist Stories of the Thirteenth Century)/ Ranjini/ Sri Satguru Publications