History of Arizona

The first arrived in  between  and 10,000 BCE, while the history of Arizona as recorded by Europeans began when, a , explored the area in 1539. 's expedition entered the area in 1540–1542 during its search for. Padre developed a chain of missions and taught the Indians  in  (now southern Arizona and northern ) in the 1690s and early 1700s. founded fortified towns (presidios) at in 1752 and  in 1775.

All of present-day Arizona became part of the State of Vieja California upon the Mexican assertion of independence from Spain in 1821. The took possession of most of Arizona at the end of the  in 1848. In 1853, the land below the was acquired from Mexico in the. Arizona was administered as part of the Territory of New Mexico until it was organized into a separate territory on,.

Arizona was &mdash;officially becoming a &mdash;on,.

Phoenix is the site of a German and Italian prisoner of war camp during. The site was purchased after the war by the Maytag family and is currently the. Also located in the state were the 's second- and third-largest camps,  and.

The Paleo-Indians and Archaic peoples
According to the best archaeological and geological evidence available,, -hunting families moved into northwestern sometime between 16,000 BC and 10,000 BC. In central , they found their passage blocked by a huge sheet of ice until a temporary recession in the last  that opened up an ice-free corridor through northwestern , allowing bands to fan out throughout the rest of the continent. The earliest undisputed evidence of humans in the is a set of fluted  points from the Paleolithic. Some scientists have proposed that small bands of women, men and children wandered across the deserts of southwestern Arizona and northwestern Mexico 10,000 to 20,000 years earlier than the mammoth hunters.

In the opinion of geoscientist Paul Martin, these bands, armed with s (named for the site near where the first point was found), encountered mammoths, s, s, and s. As these species had never faced sophisticated big-game hunters before, the result was the  " overkill", the rapid and systematic slaughter of nearly all the species of large ice-age mammals in North America by 8000 BC. In a sense, the hunters who pursued the mammoths may have represented the first of Arizona's many cycles of, in which a single resource is relentlessly exploited until that resource has been depleted or destroyed.

Archaeologists call the 7,000 years between the disappearance of big-game hunters and the emergence of -making societies, in the 2nd century AD, the. Most Archaic groups survived by becoming generalists rather than specialists, in seasonal movements across the mountains, s and s. They did not abandon hunting, but they depended to a much greater degree upon wild plant foods and small game. Their tools became more varied, with grinding and chopping implements becoming more common, a sign that s, s and greens constituted a greater proportion of their diet.



Climate changes drove the transition from big-game hunting. When the first big-game hunters entered Arizona, the s were as much as 3,000 feet lower than they are today. In the, , and  woodlands extended as far as 1,800 feet down slopes, the elevation of lower slopes of  in. Desert grasslands studded with s, and  carpeted valleys below. The great forests of the  did not exist. Instead, the supported vast stands of mixed s such as,  and &mdash;the trees characteristic of higher altitudes today. The giant, the plant that symbolizes Arizona in many people's minds, had largely taken refuge in present-day Mexico.

Temperatures rose, and the seasonal distribution of began to change, causing major changes in the  as well. The Clovis people were stalking mammoths and other ice-age species in southeastern Arizona at a time when many streams were drying up, forcing animals to concentrate around streams and seeps. The growing aridity of the region therefore coincided with the arrival of hunters who specialized in the pursuit of large s. It is possible that climate and humans acted together to bring an end to these species.

Arizona grew even more arid after the last came to an end. Summers grew wetter, but warmer, so rainfall evaporated quicker. Winters became considerably drier, making less moisture available to plants. In southern Arizona, woodlands gave way to desert grasslands, and desert grasslands gave way to desert scrub. Important species like saguaro and  began to recolonize the region from the south, while ponderosa forests and piñon-juniper-oak woodlands climbed back onto the Colorado Plateau. By 2000 BC, the modern plant communities of Arizona had been established and a modern climate prevailed.

The early Archaic peoples of Arizona survived these changes by adapting to the cycles of plants rather than trying to change them. In the woodlands, they gathered s in July and August, and piñon nuts and juniper berries in November. In the desert, they picked the leaves of annual plants like (goosefoot) and  (pigweed). They also roasted in rock-lined pits each spring, and collected  fruit and harvested  pods in the summer. Because of their dependence on scattered and seasonal resources, Archaic groups did not occupy permanent settlements. Instead, they wandered from camp to camp in search of water and wild foods.

Their tools reflected their economy: s (manos and metates) were used for grinding seeds into flour, scrapers for working hide and wood, and points, smaller and cruder than the earlier Clovis and s, for hunting large and small game. The varying proportions of such tools at different sites suggest that people moved back and forth between different environmental zones to exploit their particular resources. Archaic peoples fashioned that demonstrated their capacity for wonder and their quest for supernatural power. s 10 to 100 feet in length appeared on both sides of the in southeastern  and southwestern Arizona. Many of them were of stylized s,, , and human forms.

The introduction of agriculture
For most of the Archaic period, people were not able to transform their in any fundamental way. Many archaeologists assumed that the Archaic cultures of Arizona were dead ends. They believed groups outside the region, particularly, introduced major innovations like into the Southwest. According to this model, first put down Southwestern roots in the highlands of western  and eastern Arizona, the pre-Hispanic cultural area known as the. Archaic populations there began growing a small and primitive variety of maize at places like Bat Cave as early as 3500 BCE. From there, maize spread slowly to more arid and lowland areas, such as the Sonoran Desert.

During the 1980s, these early maize dates were challenged by a refinement in using the  (AMS) technique. Accelerator dates reveal that the first corn from Bat Cave and other highland sites appeared around 1000 BCE, 2,500 years later than previously thought. A number of sites excavated in southern Arizona demonstrate that Archaic farmers were cultivating maize in the Tucson Basin at around the same time as well. At the Milagro site along Tanque Verde Creek, for example, a Late Archaic population built s, dug bell-shaped storage pits, and planted maize around 850 BCE. Archaic groups, then, were already beginning to make the transition from food gatherers to food producers around 3,000 years ago. They also possessed many of the cultural features that accompany semisedentary agricultural life: storage facilities, more permanent dwellings, larger settlements, and even.

Despite the early advent of farming, late Archaic groups still exercised little control over their natural environment. Furthermore, wild food resources remained important components of their diet even after the invention of pottery and the development of. The introduction of agriculture never resulted in the complete abandonment of hunting and foraging, even in the largest of Archaic societies. During the CE, at least three major cultures flourished in the Southwest: the, the , and the. These three cultures are well known for their and pottery.

European colonization
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Although the first European visitors to Arizona may have come in 1528, the most influential expeditions in early Spanish Arizona were those of and. The accounts of the early Spanish explorers of large mythical cities like and large mineral deposits of  and silver would attract settlers and miners to the region in later years. These explorations led to the in Arizona, and widespread epidemics of  among the Native Americans. Native-American history of early European Arizonan exploration is hard to find, but the O'odham stick is a traditional way of recording notable events, including droughts, invasions, floods that could be used as a source.

Early s and in Arizona also set up numerous missions around the area to convert the Native Americans, such as. The missionary around the Pimería Alta, exchanging gifts and catechizing the natives, who were then used as scouts for keeping track of events on the frontier. In 1680, the drove Spaniards temporarily from northern, but the area was reconquered in 1694.

Spanish Arizona
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Although the Spanish did not yet have s for themselves, in the late 17th century, colonists began steadily entering the, attracted by the recent discovery of deposits of silver around the Arizonac mining camp. Most of the colonists left after announced it had merely been ; however, several stayed and became subsistence farmers. During the mid-18th century, the s of Arizona tried to expand northward, but were prevented from doing so by the  and  Native Americans, who had begun raiding their s for.

In 1765, the Bourbon Reforms began, with doing a major rearranging of the presidios on the northern. The Jesuits were expelled from the area, and the Franciscans took their place at their s. In the 1780s and 1790s, the Spanish began a plan of setting up Apache and providing the Apache with rations so that they would not attack, allowing the Spanish to expand northward.

For the most part, Spanish Arizona had a, with occasional small gold and silver mining operations.

Mexican Arizona
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In 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain after a decade of war. The had destroyed the colonial  mining industry and had bankrupted the national. Along the northern frontier, funds that had supported missions, presidios and Apache peace camps nearly disappeared. As a result, Apaches once again began raiding, running off horse herds, and killing anyone caught outside presidial walls. As missions began to wither, Mexico began auctioning off more land, causing the Pimería Alta and the Apachería to shrink as territory expanded.

American began to enter the region, looking to trap beavers for their pelts. In 1846, the ideology of and the occupation of disputed territory led the  to initiate. The U.S. occupied Mexico City and forced the newly founded Mexican Republic to give up its northern half, including the later Arizona. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) specified that the U.S. pay Mexico the sum of US$15 million in compensation. In 1849, the led as many as 50,000 miners through the region, leading to major booms in Arizona's population. In 1853, President sent  to  to negotiate with, and the United States bought the remaining area of Arizona and New Mexico in the.

American Arizona Territory
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On, the southern half of New Mexico Territory declared itself independent of the United States. was regarded as a valuable route for possible access to the, with the specific intention of joining southern California to the Confederacy. In, Southern California had cleared all legal hurdles for secession from the rest of California and was waiting reorganization as a new US territory, which never materialized. At that time sparsely populated southern California was a hotbed of Southern-sympathizers. The was the westernmost battle of the Civil War fought in the, and the only major one to be fought in Arizona. (The westernmost battle of the Civil War was fought at San José, California.) During the war, U.S. presidios were moved to New Mexico, leaving Arizona vulnerable to Native American attack. Hostilities between the Native Americans and American settlers began, despite their alliance during the time of the Mexican-American War, leading to most Indian tribes being moved to.

s, mining, cattle and s became vital parts of the Arizona economy, leading to s being formed as prospectors found gold, and the boomtowns becoming s as the miners left. Mexicans, who still were the majority in Arizona during the time shortly following the Mexican-American War, constituted most of the mining labor force.

The of 1877, which gave settlers 640 acres (1 sq. mi., 2.6 km²) of land, caused people to flood into the region.

In the 1900s, Arizona almost entered the Union as part of New Mexico in a plan to keep control of the. The plan, while accepted by most in New Mexico, was rejected by the vast majority of those living in Arizona. On February 14, 1912, Arizona finally entered the Union as the 48th of the United States. In the same year, women gained in the state.

The Great Depression and the World Wars
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In 1917, the United States entered into, thus beginning a boom in the economy of Arizona. After suffering through, the implementation of the and another economic boom after  brought Arizona back into a state of stability.

During this timeframe, industries such as, copper, farming, and miniz began to flourish in the state. The military began using and  for s and, with the army becoming the community's largest source of revenue. For a time, the swept the elections. and would later have successful judicial and political careers.

During the war, people also began to move to Arizona from other regions of the country because of its inland position and protection from aerial attacks. In 1946, Arizona began to enforce s, which allowed workers to decide whether or not to join or financially support a union. The dual-wage system, in which Mexicans made $1.15 less per shift, was abandoned. In 1948, the industry began in Arizona, with  building one of the first plants in Phoenix. 1948 also saw American Indians gaining the right to vote, after having been disqualified for twenty years for being "wards of the state".

Recent events
In recent times, Arizona has become a major warm-weather and retirement destination, much like. A major part of the tourism industry is based on the presence of the.

In 1963, the ruled in favor of Arizona over California in a dispute over Arizona's share of the. Five years after the decision, authorization was given for the construction of the, which was not completed until 1991.

, a native of Arizona, ran for the in, with  as his running mate. Due to the, Goldwater found himself in the difficult position of running against the successor to a slain president, and was soundly defeated by. Goldwater received only 38.4% of the popular vote and the s of just five states, including 5 from Arizona.

In 1988,, the , was impeached. Mecham faced allegations of, including trying to conceal a $350,000 campaign loan, borrowing $60,000 of state money to prop up his struggling auto dealership, as well as allegations of attempting to block the investigation of a made by a state official. succeeded him as the Governor of Arizona, becoming the first female ever to hold the office.

Mecham had already been unpopular for his cancellation of a paid holiday for state employees. The holiday had been first proposed in 1972 by former state senators. For the first of several times, the legislation had failed to pass the legislature, causing Arizona to lose its chance to host the, as well as costing the state tourism and other benefits that naturally come from these events. Governor gave state employees the day off by executive order, but Mecham later voided the order just a week before the holiday was to be celebrated, based on a legal opinion by the state's  that the holiday had been created illegally.

When the legislation passed in 1989, Rose Mofford signed into law a paid state holiday honoring, making it possible for the state to host a. The chair of the filed a  against it, accusing Dr. King of being a  and philanderer. The two 1990 ballot initiatives were, respectively, for celebrating both Martin Luther King Day and holidays, and for swapping the Columbus holiday for the King one. Both failed. In 1992, in the face of a tourist and losing the chance to host, 61% of Arizonan voters publicly approved the payment of state workers on a Martin Luther King Day/Civil Rights Day holiday. It was the 49th state in the United States to approve the holiday, and the first state to have voter approval of allowing state workers to have paid absence on Martin Luther King Day. was later played in in 1996 and  will be held in  in 2008.

Mofford's successor as governor,, resigned in 1997 after conviction of bank fraud. His conviction was later overturned, and he was subsequently pardoned by President. On, , the governors of both Arizona and New Mexico declared an emergency in the Mexico-bordering counties of their states. Both governors cited violence,, , and the inaction of both the U.S. and Mexican governments as reasons for the state of emergency. Governor of Arizona freed $1.5 million in disaster funds to help the border counties, and Governor  of New Mexico freed $1.75 million.