Alaska

Alaska (, Аляска) is a in the, in the extreme northwest portion of the n continent. It is the largest by  (by a substantial margin), and one of the wealthiest and most racially diverse.

The area that became Alaska was purchased from n interests on. The land went through several administrative changes before becoming an in 1912 and the 49th state of the U.S. on,. The name "Alaska" is derived from the alaxsxaq, meaning "the mainland", or more literally "the object towards which the action of the sea is directed".

Geography
Alaska is one of two U.S. states not bordered by another state, being the other. Alaska has more then all the other US states combined. It is the only non-contiguous state in ; about 500 mi of territory separate Alaska from. Alaska is thus an of the United States, part of the  but is not part of the contiguous U.S. Alaska is the only state whose  is inaccessible by land - no roads connect  to the rest of the state.

The state is bordered by and,  to the east, the  and the  to the south, the , , and  to the west, and the  and the  to the north.

Alaska is the largest state in the United States in terms of land area at 570380 sqmi, over twice as large as, the next largest state. If the state's westernmost point were superimposed on, its easternmost point would be in. It is larger than all but 18 sovereign nations. One scheme for describing the state's geography is by labeling the regions:
 * is the southern coastal region and contains most of the state's population. and many growing towns, such as, and , lie within this area.  industrial plants, transportation, , and two s form the core of the economy here.
 * The, also known as Southeast Alaska, is home to many of Alaska's larger towns including the state capital Juneau, tidewater s and extensive forests. Tourism, fishing, forestry and state government anchor the economy.
 * is largely coastal, bordered by both the and the . It is sparsely populated, and unconnected to the road system, but incredibly important to the fishing industry.  Half of all fish caught in the western U.S. come from the, and  has the world's largest  fishery.   includes  and  national parks as well as numerous wildlife refuges.  The region comprises western ,  and its watersheds, the  and the .  It is known for wet and stormy weather, tundra landscapes, and large populations of , , , birds, and.
 * The is home to . The geography is marked by large s, such as the  and the, as well as   lands and shorelines.
 * The is the remote, less crowded part of the state, encompassing 380 native villages and small towns such as, ,  and, most famously, , the northernmost town in the United States, as well as the northern most town on the contiguous North American continent (cities in Greenland, the North West Terrirories, and Nunavut that are farther north are on islands).

The northeast corner of Alaska is covered by the, which covers 19049236 acre. Much of the northwest is covered by the larger, which covers around 23000000 acre million acres. The Arctic is Alaska's most remote wilderness. A location in the is 120 mi miles from any town or village, the geographic point most remote from permanent habitation in the USA.

With its numerous islands, Alaska has nearly 34000 mi of tidal shoreline. The island chain extending west from the southern tip of the is called the. Many active es are found in the Aleutians. For example, is home to, a moderately active volcano that rises to 9980 ft above. The chain of volcanoes extends to, west of Anchorage on the mainland.

One of North America's largest tides occurs in, just south of Anchorage - tidal differences can be more than 35 ft. (Many sources say Turnagain has the second-greatest tides in North America, but several areas in Canada have larger tides. )

Alaska has 3.5 million s of 20 acre or larger. s and wetland cover 188320 sqmi (mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands). Frozen water, in the form of ice, covers some 16000 sqmi of land and 1200 sqmi of tidal zone. The complex near the southeastern border with, , covers 2250 sqmi alone.

The Aleutian Islands cross longitude 180°, so Alaska can be considered the easternmost state as well as the westernmost. Alaska, and especially the Aleutians, are one of the. The jogs west of 180° to keep the whole state, and thus the entire continental United States, within the same legal day.

According to an October 1998 report by the, approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the as s, s, and s. Of these, the  manages 87 million acres (350,000 km²), or 23.8% of the state. The is managed by the.

Of the remaining land area, the State of Alaska owns 24.5%; another 10% is managed by 13 regional and dozens of local Native corporations created under the. Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling less than 1%.

Alaska is administratively divided into "", as opposed to "counties." The function is the same, but whereas some states use a three-tiered system of decentralization &mdash; state/county/township &mdash; most of Alaska uses only two tiers &mdash; state/borough. Owing to the low population density, most of the land is located in the which, as the name implies, has no intermediate borough government of its own, but is administered directly by the state government. Currently 57.71% of Alaska's area has this status, with 13.05% of the population. For statistical purposes the divides this territory into s. Anchorage merged the city government with the Greater Anchorage Area Borough in 1971 to form the Municipality of Anchorage, containing the city proper and the bedroom communities of Eagle River, Chugiak, Peters Creek, Girdwood, Bird, and Indian. Fairbanks has a separate borough (the ) and municipality (the City of Fairbanks).

Climate
The climate in Juneau and the southeast panhandle is best described as a cooler version of. It is a mid-latitude ( Cfb) in the southern sections and a subarctic oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc) in the northern parts. On an annual basis, this is both the wettest and warmest part of Alaska with milder temperatures in the winter and high precipitation throughout the year. Juneau averages over 50 in of precipitation a year, while other areas receive over 275 in. This is also the only region in Alaska in which the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months.

The climate in south central Alaska, with Anchorage as a typical city, is mild by Alaskan standards. This is due in large part to its proximity to the coast. While it does not get nearly as much rain as the southeast of Alaska, it does get more snow, although days tend to be clearer here. On average, Anchorage receives 16 in of precipitation a year, with around 75 in of snow, although there are areas in the south central which receive far more snow. It is a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc) due to its short, cool summers though. The climate of Western Alaska is determined in large part by the and the. It is a subarctic oceanic climate in the southwest and a continental subarctic climate farther north. The temperature is somewhat moderate considering how far north the area is. This area has a tremendous amount of variety, especially when considering precipitation. The northern side of the Seward Peninsula is technically a desert with less than 10 in of precipitation annually, while some locations between Dillingham and Bethel average around 100 in of precipitation.

The climate of the interior of Alaska is best described as extreme and is the best example of a true subarctic climate. Some of the hottest and coldest temperatures in Alaska occur around the area near Fairbanks. The summers can have temperatures reaching into the 80s°F (near 30 °C), while in the winter, the temperature can fall below −60 °F (-52 °C). Precipitation is not much in the Interior, often less than 10 in a year, but what precipitation falls in the winter tends to stay the entire winter.

The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska are both in the Interior. The highest is 100 °F (38 °C) in on, ,  tied with  as the lowest high temperature in the United States. The lowest Alaska temperature is −80 °F (-64 °C) in on January 23, 1971, one degree above the lowest temperature recorded in North America (in ).

The climate in the extreme north of Alaska is as expected for an area north of the. It is an (Köppen ET) with long, very cold winters and short, cool summers. Even in July, the average low temperature is barely above freezing in Barrow, at 34 °F (2 °C). Precipitation is light in this part of Alaska, with many places averaging less than 10 in per year, mostly in the form of snow which stays on the ground almost the entire year.

History
At the end of the Period (around 12,000 BCE),  groups crossed the  into what is now western Alaska. At the time of European contact by the, the area was populated by groups.

The first European contact with Alaska occurred in the 1741, when led an  for the Russian Navy aboard the St. Peter. After his crew returned to Russia bearing sea otter pelts judged to be the finest in the world, small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia towards the Aleutian islands. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1784, and the carried out expanded an colonization program during the early to mid-1800s. Despite these efforts, the Russians never fully colonized Alaska, and the was never very profitable. , the, engineered the in 1867 for $7.2 million.

In the 1890s, es in Alaska and the nearby brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. Alaska was granted territorial status in 1912.

During, three of the outer —Attu, Agattu and Kiska—were the only part of the United States to have land occupied by the enemy during the war. The battle became a matter of national pride, defending the nation against the first foreign military campaign on U.S. soil since the. The construction of also contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities.

Alaska was granted statehood on,.

In 1964, the massive "" killed 131 people and leveled several villages.

The 1968 discovery of oil at and the 1977 completion of the  led to an oil boom. In 1989, the  hit a reef in the, spilling between 11 and 35 million US gallons (42,000-130,000 m³) of crude oil over 1,100 miles (1,600 km) of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the.

Demographics
In 2005 Alaska had an estimated population of 663,661, an increase of 5,906 (0.9%) from 2004 and 36,730 (5.9%) from 2000. In 2000 Alaska ranked 48th out of 50 states by population. Alaska is the least densely populated state, at 0.42 people per square kilometer (1.1 per square mile), with the next state, Wyoming, at 1.97 (5.1 per square mile), and the most densely populated, New Jersey, at 437.6 people per square kilometer (1,134.4 per square mile).

Race and ancestry
According to the, 75% of Alaska residents are white. 19% are American Indian or Alaska Native, the largest proportion of any state. Multiracial/Mixed-Race people are the third largest group of people in the state, totaling 6.9% of the population. The largest self-reported ancestry groups in the state are (16.6%), Alaska Native or American Indian (15.6%),  (10.8%),  (9.6%),  (5.7%), and  (4.2%).

The vast sparsely-populated regions of northern and western Alaska are primarily inhabited by Alaska Natives, who are also numerous in the southeast. Anchorage, Fairbanks, and other parts of south-central and southeast Alaska have many whites of northern and western European ancestry. The Wrangell-Petersburg area has many residents of Scandinavian ancestry and the Aleutians contain a large population. Most of the state's black population lives in Anchorage. Fairbanks also has a sizable black population.

Languages
According to the, 85.7% of Alaska residents aged 5 and older speak at home. The next most common languages are (2.88%),  (2.87%),  (1.54%), and  (1.06%). A total of 5.2% of Alaskans speak one of the state's 22, known locally as Native languages.

Religion
Eighty-two percent of Alaskans are Christians. Of these, 76% are, 10% are , 9% are , 5% are , and 1% are. The large Eastern Orthodox population is a result of early and  work among Alaska Natives. Alaska also has the largest Quaker population (by percentage) of any state. In 1994 there were 3,060 in Alaska.

Economy
The 2005 was $39.9 billion. Its per-capita GSP for 2005 was $60,079,. Alaska's economy relies heavily on petroleum extraction, with more than 80% of the state's revenues derived from this industry. Alaska's main export product (excluding oil and natural gas) is seafood, primarily salmon, cod, pollock and crab. Agriculture represents only a fraction of the Alaska economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere. Employment is primarily in government and industries such as extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in both Fairbanks and Anchorage. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging.

Alaska's economy is heavily dependent on increasingly expensive fuel for, ,  and light. Though and  are abundant and underutilized, proposals for state-wide energy systems (e.g. with special ) were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (<$0.50/Gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population. The cost of a of gas in urban Alaska today is usually $0.30-$0.60 higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors.

Permanent Fund
The is a legislatively-controlled appropriation established in 1976 to manage a surplus in state petroleum revenues from the recently constructed. From its initial principal of $734,000, the fund has grown to $38 billion as a result of oil royalties and capital investment programs. Starting in 1982, dividends from the fund's annual growth have been paid out each year to eligible Alaskans, ranging from $331.29 in 1984 to $1963.86 in 2000.

Cost of living
The cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. This has changed for the most part in and to a lesser extent in, where the cost of living has dropped somewhat in the past five years. Federal Government employees, particularly (USPS) workers and active-duty military members, receive a Cost Of Living Allowance usually set at 25% of base pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country.

The introduction of big-box stores in Anchorage, Fairbanks ( in March of 2004), and Juneau also did much to lower prices. However, rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods, compared to the rest of the country due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure. Many rural residents come in to these cities and purchase food and goods in bulk from warehouse clubs like and. Some have embraced the free shipping offers of some online retailers to purchase items much more cheaply than they could in their own communities, if they are available at all.

Taxes
Alaska has the lowest individual tax burden in the US, and is one of only six states with no state and one of seven states that do not levy an individual. To finance state government operations, Alaska depends primarily on revenues. The Department of Revenue Tax Division reports regularly on the state's revenue sources. The Department also issues an annual overview of its operations, including new state laws that directly affect the tax division.

While Alaska has no state sales tax, 89 municipalities collect a local sales tax, from 1% to 7%, typically 3% to 5%. Other local taxes levied include raw fish taxes,, motel, and “bed” taxes, severance taxes,  and  taxes, gaming (pull tabs) taxes, tire taxes and fuel transfer taxes. A percentage of revenue collected from certain state taxes and license fees (such as petroleum, aviation motor fuel, telephone cooperative) is shared with municipalities in Alaska.

Property taxes are relatively low, with only 25 of 161 incorporated municipalities or boroughs in the state assessing property taxes. has one of the highest property taxes in the state as no sales or income taxes are assessed in the (FNSB). A sales tax for the FNSB has been voted on many times, but has yet to be approved, leading law makers to increase taxes dramatically on other goods such as liquor and tobacco. The average per capita property tax paid in all municipalities, excluding oil and gas properties, was US$999 (2003 data).

Roads


Alaska is arguably the least-connected state in terms of road transportation. The state's road system covers a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the, the principal route out of the state through. The state capital,, is not accessible by road, which has spurred several debates over the decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system. One unique feature of the road system is the, which links the south of Anchorage with the relatively isolated community of. At nearly 2.5 miles [4 km] the tunnel was the longest road tunnel in North America until completion of the 3.5 mile (5.6 km) tunnel as part of the "" project in. The tunnel is the longest combination road and rail tunnel in North America.

Rail
The runs from  through, , and  to , with spurs to  and  (locally known as "The Railbelt"). The railroad is famous for its summertime passenger services and also plays a vital part in moving Alaska's natural resources, such as coal and gravel, to ports in Anchorage, Whittier and Seward. The Alaska Railroad is one of the few remaining railroads in North America to use s in regular service and offers one of the last flag stop routes in the country. A stretch of about 60 miles of track along an area inaccessible by road is the only transportation to cabins in the area.

Marine transport
Most cities and villages in the state are accessible only by sea or air. Alaska has a well-developed system, known as the, which serves the cities of  and the. The system also operates a ferry service from, up the  to. In the region of Southeast, the  also serves as an important marine link for many communities, and works in concert with the Alaska Marine Highway. Tourist sea travel is also popular on.

Air transport
Cities not served by road or sea can be reached only by air, accounting for Alaska's extremely well-developed air services&mdash;an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage itself, and to a lesser extent Fairbanks, are serviced by. Air travel is the cheapest and most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (in 2000-2001, the latest year for which data are available, 2.4 million total arrivals to Alaska were counted, 1.7 million via air travel; 1.4 million were visitors  ).

Regular flights to most villages and towns within the state are commercially challenging to provide. is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger -200s) from Anchorage and Fairbanks to regional hubs like, , , , , and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities. The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines like:, , and. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered Bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the, the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities. But perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the Bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is, located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and lots of items from stores and warehouse clubs. Alaska has the highest number of pilots per capita of any U.S. state: out of the estimated 663,661 residents, 8,550 are pilots, or about one in 78.

Alaska has the longest runway in the world, as the entire length of the is designated an emergency landing strip.

Other transport
Another Alaskan transportation method is the. In modern times, dog is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the, a 1150-mile (1850 km) trail from Anchorage to Nome. The race commemorates the famous in which mushers and dogs like  took much-needed medicine to the -stricken community of  when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash prizes and prestige.

In areas not served by road or rail, primary transportation in summer is by and in winter by  or "snow machine," as it is commonly referred to in Alaska.

Political leanings
Alaska is often described as a -leaning state with strong tendencies. In presidential elections, the state's votes have been almost always won by a  nominee. Only once has Alaska supported a nominee, when it supported  in the landslide year of, although the  and  elections were close. No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. President won the state's electoral votes in  by a margin of 25 percentage points with 61.1% of the vote. The city of Juneau is a stronghold of the Democratic party. As of 2004, well over half of all registered voters choose "Non-Partisan" or "Undeclared" as their affiliation, despite recent attempts to close primaries. Alaska possesses a pervasively strong independence movement favoring secession from the US, with the labeled  one of the "the most significant state-level third parties operating in the 20th century".

State government
, was sworn in as the first woman and youngest Governor of Alaska. Her running mate was Lieutenant Governor. Palin is the former two-term mayor of, Alaska.

The consists of a 20-member Senate, whose members serve four-year terms, and 40-member House of Representatives, who serve two-year terms. It has been dominated by conservatives, generally Republicans. Recent state governors have been mostly conservatives, although not always elected under the official Republican banner. Republican was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after jumping the Republican ship and briefly joining the  ticket just long enough to be reelected. He subsequently officially rejoined the Republican fold in 1994.

Alaska's court system has four levels: the, the court of appeals, the superior courts and the district courts. The superior and district courts are s. Superior courts are courts of general jurisdiction, while district courts only hear certain types of cases, including misdemeanor criminal cases and civil cases valued up to $100,000. The supreme court and the court of appeals are s. The court of appeals is required to hear appeals from certain lower-court decisions, including those regarding criminal prosecutions, juvenile delinquency, and. The supreme court hears civil appeals and may in its discretion hear criminal appeals.

Local political communities often work on issues related to land use development,, , and. s, while organized in and around their communities, are often active within the which have been given ownership over large tracts of land, and thus need to deliberate resource conservation and development issues.

Representation in the U.S. Congress
Alaska's members of the are all Republican. U.S. Senator was appointed to the position following the death of U.S. Senator  in December 1968, and has not lost a re-election campaign since. As the longest-serving Republican in the Senate (sometimes nicknamed "Senator-For-Life"), Stevens has been a crucial force in gaining federal money for his state.

Until his resignation from the after being elected governor in 2002, Republican  held the state's other senatorial position and, as governor, appointed his daughter, State Representative  as his successor (under massive public pressure, the State legislature amended the constitution to eliminate gubernatorial appointments in the future). She won a full six-year term on her own in 2004.

Alaska's sole, , was re-elected to his 17th consecutive term, also in 2004. His seniority in House makes him one of the most influential Republican House members.

Important cities and towns
Alaska's most populous city is, home to 260,283 people in 2000, 225,744 of whom live in the urbanized area. The richest is  ($89,895). Sitka, Juneau, and Anchorage are the three.

Also notable is the rapid growth of towns in the. and are projected to experience over 100% population growth between 2000 and 2010.



Education
The Alaska Department of Education and Early Development administers many s in Alaska. In addition, the state operates several boarding schools, including in,  in , and  in.

There are more than a dozen. Accredited universities in Alaska include the, , , and. 43% of the population attends or attended college.

Current issues
Alaska has long had a problem with alcohol use and abuse. Many rural communities in Alaska have outlawed its import. "Dry", "wet", and "damp" are terms describing a community's laws on liquor consumption. This problem directly relates to Alaska's high rate of (FAS) as well as contributing to the high rate of suicides. This is a controversial topic for many residents.

Alaska has also had a problem with "" as many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state upon graduating high school. While for many this functions as a sort of, many do not return to the state. The has been successfully combating this by offering partial four-year scholarships to the top 10% of Alaska high school graduates, via the Alaska Scholars Program.

and other violent crimes are also at notoriously high levels in the state; this is in part linked to alcohol abuse.

Alaska is also the only state to allow legal possession of : an adult may possess four ounces for personal use.

Culture

 * See also 

Some of Alaska's popular annual events are the World Ice Art Championships in, the Alaska Hummingbird Festival in , the , and the Stikine River Garnet Fest in. The features the largest springtime concentration of American Bald Eagles in the world.

The celebrates the rich heritage of Alaska's 11 cultural groups. Their purpose is to enhance self-esteem among Native people and to encourage cross-cultural exchanges among all people.

Libraries
The four main libraries in the state are the in Juneau, the  in Fairbanks, the  in Anchorage, and the, also in Anchorage. Alaska is one of three states (the others are and ) that does not have a.

Food
Due to the northern climate and steep terrain, relatively little farming occurs in Alaska. Most farms are in either the near, or on the. The short summer limits the types of crops that can be grown - primary crops are potatoes, carrots, lettuce, and cabbage. But the long days of summer can allow these vegetables to reach record size. Alaska has an abundance of seafood, with the primary fisheries in the, and seafood is one of the few food items that is often cheaper within the state than outside it. Hunting for subsistence, primarily, , and is still fairly common in the state, particularly in remote  communities. An example of a traditional native food is, the Eskimo ice cream, consisting of reindeer fat and seal oil and some berries.

Most food in Alaska is transported into the state from outside, and is relatively expensive due to the high shipping costs.

Music
Influences on music in Alaska include the traditional music of as well as folk music brought by later immigrants from  and. Prominent musicians from Alaska include singer, traditional Aleut , folk  , the group , and the  band.

There are many established music festivals in Alaska, including the, the the , the , and the. The most prominent in Alaska is the, though the  is also notable. The is currently the state's only professional opera company, though there are several volunteer and semi-professional organizations in the state as well.

The official of Alaska is "", which was adopted in 1955; it celebrates the.

Movies filmed in Alaska
One of the most prominent movies filmed in Alaska was 's winning classic "Eskimo/Mala The Magnificent" starring Alaska's own. In 1932 an expedition set out from 's studios in to Alaska to film what was then billed as "The Biggest Picture Ever Made". Upon arriving in Alaska, they set up "Camp Hollywood" in Northwest Alaska where they lived during the duration of the filming. spared no expense in making sure they had everything they needed during their stay-he even sent the famous chef from the on  (the site of the first ) with them to Alaska to cook for them! When "Eskimo" premiered at the famed in Times Square, New York, the studio received the largest amount of feedback in the history of the studio up to that time. "Eskimo" was critically acclaimed and released worldwide; as a result  actor  became an international movie star. "Eskimo" is significant for the following: winning the very first  for  at the, for forever preserving  culture on film, and for being the first motion picture to be filmed in an all native language.

State symbols

 * State bird:, adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1955. It is a small (15-17 inches) Arctic grouse that lives among willows and on open tundra and muskeg. Plumage is brown in summer, changing to white in winter. The Willow Ptarmigan is common in much of Alaska.
 * State fish:, adopted 1962.
 * State flower: wild/native, adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1917. It is a perennial that is found throughout Alaska, from Hyder to the Arctic Coast, and west to the Aleutians.
 * State fossil:, adopted 1986.
 * State gem:, adopted 1968.
 * State insect: Four-spot skimmer, adopted 1995.
 * State land mammal:, adopted 1998.
 * State marine mammal:, adopted 1983.
 * State mineral:, adopted 1968.
 * State song: ""
 * State sport:, adopted 1972.
 * State tree:, adopted 1962.