1260s

The 1260s is the decade starting January 1, 1260 and ending December 31, 1269.

In the, became the supreme leader and moved his capital to ; while he fought the southern  , the empire saw its first significant military defeats &mdash; first in  at the hands of the  of , and later in the. The Mamluks, led by their new sultan, quickly became a regional power in the by capturing a number of  and repulsing Mongol attacks. The succeeded in capturing  and the rest of the, thus re-establishing the.

In Europe, political strife and territorial disputes led to widespread warfare around the continent. witnessed the, a fought over the aristocracy's disillusionment with King 's attempts to maintain an. The of the, aligned against the  dynasty of the , succeeded in eliminating the line when the last male heir, , was killed by papal ally , a. Meanwhile, King became the most powerful prince in Europe, expanding his territories through both warfare and inheritance. In other developments, both and  accepted the overlordship of, but  was able to repulse a Norse invasion and broker a favorable peace settlement. In, the continued as several important cities were recaptured from the. Political reforms were instituted in the election procedures of the and the, and the parliaments of  and England met for the first time.

Several important cultural achievements were made in the decade, including publication of 's important scientific work Opus Majus and ' . Masterpieces of architecture and sculpture were completed at s around Europe, including the and 's s for the  and 's. In religion, the in  adopted  as its official religion. In Europe intensified, as several authorities promulgated laws requiring Jews to wear identifying s, Jews were massacred in England, and the  was attacked and censored by the Catholic Church.

North and West Europe

 * 1260 - The  and  defeat the  in the.
 * 1263 - October - King defeats the Viking armada of King  in the.
 * 1263 - The chieftains of the eastern part of Iceland become the last to pledge fealty to the Norwegian king, bringing a more complete end to the and the.
 * 1266 - The war between and  ends as King  and King  agree to the, which cedes the  and  to Scotland in exchange for a large monetary payment.

Central and South Europe

 * 1260 - - The forces of King, in league with the , defeat the  at.
 * 1260 - War breaks out in the (today in ) as the  defends against an invasion by the.
 * 1263 - captures the city of  on  from the.
 * 1264 - The ends.
 * 1266 - - In the, an army led by , Count of , defeats a combined  and  force led by King .  Manfred is killed in the battle and  invests Charles as king of  and.

Iberian Peninsula

 * 1263 - King conquers,  from the  during the.
 * 1264 - In, King  the cities of  in  and  in  from the , ending over 500 years of ic rule.
 * 1265 - King captures the city of,  from the  during the.
 * 1267 - King and King  sign a treaty determining the southern border between  and  as the  River, a border that remains to this day.

Southeast Europe

 * 1260 - King captures  from King  in the.
 * 1261 - of  repels a  invasion.
 * 1268 - King launches a war against.

England: The Second Barons' War

 * 1261 - King obtains a  releasing him from the, setting the stage for a civil war over the power struggle between the crown and the aristocracy of.
 * 1264 - Before May -, an , begins.
 * 1264 - to  - The  is fought between  and King  in .  By the end of the battle, de Montfort's forces capture both King Henry and his brother, future King, making de Montfort the "uncrowned king of ".
 * 1265 - - In, the first   conducts its first meeting in the , now also known as the Houses of Parliament.
 * 1265 - Before August - Future King Edward I escapes captivity in the hands of Simon de Montfort.
 * 1265 - - The  is fought in, with the army of Edward defeating the forces of rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort and killing de Montfort and many of his allies.  This is sometimes considered the death of  in.
 * 1266 - October - The war winds down as supporters of the slain rebel leader Simon de Montfort make an offer of peace to the king in the.
 * 1267 - The Second Barons' War ends, as the rebels and King agree to peace terms as laid out in the Dictum of Kenilworth.

Political entities

 * 1260 - The is divided into  and, marking the end of the first Saxon state.
 * 1261 - The population of accepts the overlordship of the.
 * 1262 - becomes an  of the.
 * 1262 - The enters into a treaty establishing a union with  and acknowledges Norwegian King  as its ruler.
 * 1264 - The state of gains its independence from  and becomes a free state of the.
 * 1265 - The comes under  rule for a brief period of 10 years.
 * 1267 - Emperor gifts the  to King  in the  in the hopes that Charles could help him restore the.
 * 1268 - The county of become a vassal state of the  of.

Political reform

 * 1264 - - The  meets at  in, the first definitively known meeting of this.
 * 1264 to 1267 - The in  known as the  marks a high point of struggle for political power between the landed aristocracy of England and the King.
 * 1268 - for the election of the  are established in  in order to reduce the influence of powerful individual families.
 * 1268 - dies; the following  fails to choose a new  for almost three years, precipitating the later creation of stringent rules governing the electoral procedures.

People

 * 1262 - King of  renounces, returning to his  roots and reverting to Grand Duke of Lithuania.
 * 1263 -, the first and only  of , is assassinated by his cousin.
 * 1264 - In the, the title , the oldest continuously held peerage title in England, is created by.
 * 1267 - King acknowledges 's title of  in the.
 * 1268 - -, the last legitimate male heir of the  dynasty of  and s, is executed along with his companion  by , a political rival and ally to the hostile Catholic church.
 * 1268 - The first rises to prominence with the marriage of  to King 's daughter,, heiress to the lordship of Bourbon.
 * 1269 - King inherits  and part of, making him the most powerful prince within the.

Mongol Empire

 * 1260 - -  becomes ruler of the.
 * 1260 - - The  are defeated by the  at the  in Palestine, marking the first decisive defeat of the Mongols and the point of maximum expansion of the Mongol Empire.
 * 1263 - is defeated in an attempted invasion north of the.
 * 1265 - Mongol raid against and, led by.
 * 1266 -, brother and uncle of reach 's capital  (now ) in , setting the stage for Marco's famous expedition starting five years later.  Kublai Khan sends the Polos back with a message requesting the  dispatch western scholars to teach in the ; however, this request is largely ignored.
 * 1268 - The, a six-year battle between the  and the  forces of , begins in what is today.
 * 1268 - sends an emissary to the  of  demanding an acknowledgment of souzerainty and payment of ; the Japanese refuse, starting a diplomatic back-and-forth lasting until the  attempt to invade in.

Mamluk sultanate of Egypt

 * 1260 - - The Mamluks defeat the Mongols at the  in Palestine.
 * 1260 - -, Mamluk sultan of , is  by , who seizes power for himself.
 * 1261 - Baibars establishes a  in.
 * 1266 - Baibars expands his domain, capturing the city of (in present-day ) and the important castle of  from s, and defeating the ns at.
 * 1268 - - The, a , falls to Baibars after the ; Baibars' destruction of the city of  was so great as to permanently negate the city's importance.

Byzantine Empire

 * 1261 - - The city of  is recaptured by  forces under the command of, thus re-establishing the .  The Byzantines also succeed in capturing  and the rest of the.

North Africa

 * The dynasty of s (not universally accepted) that once ruled most of  and   is extinguished when  is murdered in the dynasty's last remaining possession,.
 * The  completes the conquest of, replacing the Almohad dynasty which it defeated in Marrakesh.

South Asia

 * 1260 - The of  falls.
 * 1260 - The, which ruled an area around , ends.
 * 1267 - establishes, the first  state in.

Science, literature, and industry

 * 1260 - compiles his work, the , a late  best-seller.
 * 1265 - The, a  of , is penned.
 * 1265 - The of   begins in  (now part of the ); Budweiser Budvar has been produced continuously there to this day.
 * 1266 - In, the  and   coins are minted for the first time.
 * 1267 - completes his work Opus Majus and sends it to, who had requested it be written; the work contains wide-ranging discussion of , , , , , and other topics, and includes what some believe to be the first description of a . Bacon also completes Opus Minus, a summary of Opus Majus, later in the same year.
 * 1268 - In, the use of as the exclusive flavoring agent used in the manufacture of  is made compulsory.
 * 1269 - first describes s and remarks on the nonexistence of.

Art, architecture, and music

 * 1260 - - The spectacular  is dedicated in the presence of King ; the cathedral is now a.
 * 1260 - Construction on the begins in, , as well as other important cathedrals in  and.
 * 1260 - sculpts the pulpit of the.
 * 1260 - The Christ between the Virgin and St Minias is made on the facade of 's.
 * 1260 -   publishes Ars Cantus Mensurabilis, in which he advances a new theory of musical notation in which the length of a musical note is  denoted by the shape of that note, a system still used today.
 * 1262 - writes the first, "Le Jeu de la Feuillee".
 * 1263 - The is constructed in  by Count.
 * 1267 - The "Grand Capital" is constructed in (present-day  by, having moved the capital of the  there three years prior.
 * 1268 - completes the famous al -style  at the.
 * The construction of in  is begun by.

Cities and institutions

 * 1262 - King of the  kingdom in present day  founds the city of  as the kingdom's first capital.
 * 1263 - is founded by.
 * 1264 - is founded at the  by.
 * 1264 -, supreme leader of the , moves the empire's capital from in  to the  city of  (now ).
 * 1265 - Fire destroys parts of.
 * 1268 - An in  kills an estimated 60,000 people.

Christianity

 * 1261 - January - Pope bans the movement of.
 * 1261 - -  becomes, the last man to do so without being a  first.
 * 1261 - is established in.
 * 1262 - is  as a ; he is best known for authoring the prayer later adapted into the song Day by Day in the musical.
 * 1263 - The doctrines of  are condemned as  by the  at a  in.
 * 1264 - completes his  work .
 * 1265 - Correspondence from contains the first known mention of the, an item of papal  then used to seal personal correspondence from the pope and later for s.
 * 1268 - The in  is first recorded.
 * 1269 - The  returns to  after a 171-year exile, during which it had been replaced by the.

Judaism

 * 1263 -, chief of , defends the  in an important  against  before King.
 * 1264 - April - leads a massacre of the s at.
 * 1264 - King  promulgates legal protection for his ish subjects, including protection from the kidnapping and forcible  of Jewish children.
 * 1264 - In, a commission of censors portions of the  for the first time by ordering the cancellation of passages found reprehensible from a  point of view.
 * 1267 - The leadership of forces s to wear Pileum cornutum,a cone-shaped head dress, in addition to the s Jews were already forced to wear.
 * 1269 - - King  orders all s found in public without an identifying  to be fined ten s of.

Buddhism

 * 1260 - The newly formed of  adopts.

Births

 * 1264 - (d. )
 * 1265 - -, Italian poet (d. )

Deaths

 * 1263 - -,  of  and
 * 1264 - -
 * 1265 - -,    (b. )
 * 1265 - -
 * 1266 -, of the  of the
 * 1266 -, regent and founder of
 * 1268 - -, duke of  and  and  (b. )